f-f/6         7  2. 


Bulletin  No.  72.  y 

U.  S.  pEPART^UA  1    OF   AGRICWL 

OF  FICE  *5F    EXPERIMENT  ^STATION 
VO  V  AC   TRUE,    Director. 


FARMERS'  READING  COURSES. 


BY 


L.  H.   BAILEY,    M.   8., 

Professor  of  Horticulture,  Cornell  University. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT    PRINTING    OFFICE. 

1899. 


M 


Bulletin  No.  72. 

U.S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

OFFICE    OF    EXPERIMENT    STATIONS, 
A.   C.  TRUE,    Director. 


310 


FARMERS'  READING  COURSES 


BY 


L.   H.   BAILEY,   M.   S., 

Professor  of  Horticulture,  Cornell  University. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT   PRINTING    OFFICE. 
1899. 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 


U.  s.   Department  of  Agriculture, 
Office  of  Experiment  Statu 
Washington,  D.  C,  October  16,  1 
Sir:   I  have  the   honor    to   transmit    herewith   an   article    hy  Prof. 
L.  H.  Bailey.  M.  S.,  professor  of  horticulture  in  Cornell  University. 
on  farmers*  reading  courses  in  the  United  States.     Professor  Bailey 
is  prominently  identified  with  the  university  extension  work  in  agri- 
culture connected  with  the  College  of  Agriculture  of  Cornell  Uni- 
versity, one  of  the  most  successful  features  of  which  is  a  farmers' 
reading  course,  and  has  had  occasion  to  study  this  interesting  work  in 
other  States.     As  an  important  phase  of  the  general  movement  among 
our  agricultural  colleges  to  go  outside  of  their  class  rooms  and  pro- 
mote the  education  of  our  farmers  along  the   lines  of  their  art.  the 
farmers*  reading  courses  are  now  attracting  widespread  attention,  and 
I  feel  sure  that  a  bulletin  showing  the  scope  and  methods  of  this  work 
will  be  cordially  welcomed.     I  therefore  recommend  the  publication 
of  Professor  Bailey's  article  as  Bulletin  No.  72  of  this  Office. 
Respectfully. 

A.  C.  True, 

Din  ctor, 
Hon.  James  Wilson, 

v  ,r,  tary  of  Agrieultitri . 


CONTENTS 


I 'age. 

Introduce  try  and  historical 5 

Existing  reading-course  systems 8 

Pennsylvania 8 

Michigan 10 

New  Hampshire 11 

Connecticut 13 

New  York 1  (i 

West  Virginia 18 

South  Dakota 19 

( >ther  ventures 20 

Reflectii  nis  upon  the  reading  c<  airses 21 

Appendix 25 

Z 


FARMERS'  READING  COURSES. 


INTRODUCTORY  AND  HISTORICAL. 

Among  the  agencies  for  diffusing  knowledge  and  developing  enthu- 
siasm among  farmers  the  reading  course  has  come  to  be  an  important 
factor.  In  the  movement  for  the  education  of  the  people  the  estab- 
lishing of  colleges  for  farmers  was  important  and  far-reaching.  We 
are  now  feeling,  however,  that  it  is  not  enough  that  colleges  be  main- 
tained for  those  who  desire  to  patronize  them.  Those  who  can  not  or 
will  not  come  to  the  college  must  be  reached.  Education  is  seized  of 
the  missionary  spirit;  and  this  spirit  is  that  impulse  which  passes  under 
the  general  name  of  university  extension. 

No  apology  is  needed  for  the  extension  movement;  yet  there  are 
those  who  say  that  persons  who  will  not  make  the  effort  to  learn  of 
their  own  volition  should  be  left  in  ignorance.  There  are  certainly 
two  considerations  which  make  it  imperative  that  such  persons  shall 
be  taught — the  consideration  of  altruism,  or  regard  for  one's  neighbors; 
the  consideration  or  the  desire  that  the  State  shall  prosper.  If  prog- 
ress is  desirable,  then  the  extension  movement  must  abide.  Every 
farmer  should  be  awakened. 

I  suppose  that  it  will  never  be  possible  to  discover  which  was  the 
very  first  reading-course  movement  for  farmers.  One  can  not  read  far 
in  the  history  of  the  agricultural  colleges  without  finding  germs  of  the 
idea — the  desire  that  farmers  be  given  more  and  better  reading  matter. 
This  idea  was  expressed  before  any  of  the  agricultural  colleges  came 
into  being.  It  was  thought,  however,  that  the  normal  work  of  the 
college  would  spread  sufficiently  the  reading  habit.  But  so  many 
farmers  do  not  go  to  college  and  are  not  touched  by  it,  and  so  much 
new  knowledge  has  come  into  the  farmer's  horizon,  that  some  special 
machinery  is  needed  to  carry  something  of  the  college  influence  to  the 
farm.  This  machinery  embraces  itinerant  lectures  and  experiment 
station  bulletins  and  reading  courses. 

As  early  as  1882  President  James  Mills,  of  the  Agricultural  College 
of  Ontario,  outlined  a  reading  course  for  farmers.  The  council  of 
agriculture  and  arts  for  the  province  cooperated  in  the  enterprise. 
Certificates  were   offered   to   those   completing   required   courses  of 

5 


6 

reading.     These  certificates  were  of  first,  second,  and  third  class:  and 
six  libera]  prizes  or  scholarships  were  offered,  one  for  the  first  class, 

two  for  tlic  second  class,  three  for  the  third  class.  A  few  persons 
look  iij)  the  reading  and  passed  creditable  examinations  upon  questions 
which  were  submitted  to  them;  but  the  prizes  went  mostly  to  ex- 
students  of  the  college,  and  the  Dumber  became  ><>  small  after  a  time 
that  the  whole  enterprise  was  dropped.  Commenting  recently  upon 
this  early  experiment.  President  Mills  says:  "I  think  that  a  simpler 
course,  with  some  instruction  at  convenient  centers  by  one  or  two  per- 
sons competent  to  talk  on  elementary  science  in  its  relation  to  agricul- 
ture and  on  agriculture  proper  in  its  various  branches,  would  be  more 
generally  acceptable  and  might  reach  a  considerable  number."  At 
present  the  Canadian  provinces  do  not  have  farmers'  reading  courses. 
To  show  the  character  and  scope  of  this  early  Canadian  venture  I 
transcribe  the  "Course  of  reading  for  the  second-cla>s  certificates,"  as 
printed  in  the  report  of  the  college  for  1882: 

1.  The  plant. — Relations  of  the  mineral,  vegetable,  and  animal  kingdoms  to  each 
other;  nature  and  sources  of  plant  food;  composition  of  the  most  important  crops 
grown  in  Ontario;  period  of  highest  nutritive  value;  chemical  changes  in  the  ripen- 
ing of  fruit,  grain,  and  fodder  crops;  influence  of  climate  on  perfection  of  growth. 

2.  The  soil. — Physical  and  chemical  properties  of  soils;  classification  of  soils  as 
determined  by  these  properties;  comparative  fertility  of  different  varieties  of  soil: 
active  and  dormant  ingredients  of  soils;  best  means  of  converting  dormant  into 
active. 

Chemical  and  physical  conditions  affecting  the  barrenness  and  fertility  of  soils: 
causes  of  unproductiveness;  power  of  different  soils  to  hold  manures;  influence  of 
frost,  aspect,  elevation,  and  climate  on  the  productiveness  of  soils. 

3.  Manures. — Production,  management,  and  application  of  farm-yard  manure;  con- 
ditions which  influence  its  quality;  comparative  values  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  horse 
manures;  green-crop  manuring;  composts. 

Properties  and  uses  of  artificial  manures;  lime,  plaster,  salt,  bone  dust,  and  min- 
eral superphosphates  as  manures;  circumstances  under  which  each  should  and  should 
not  be  used;  times  and  modes  of  application;  how  to  avoid  the  waste  of  such  ma- 
nure-; in  the  soil:  their  action  on  seeds  and  young  plants;  favorable  and  unfavorable 
action  at  different  stages  in  the  growth  of  crops;  action  of  nitrates  and  ammoniacal 
manures  on  cereals,  roots,  and  grasses;  special  action  of  salt  when  used  alone,  and 
also  in  connection  with  other  manures. 

Night  soil  and  animal  manures;  combinations  of  manures  for  certain  purposes; 
manures  which  impoverish  the  soil;  quantities  of  manures  to  be  used  on  various 
soils  with  different  crops;  general  principles  regulating  the  selection  of  manun 

4.  Tillage  operations. — Deep  and  shallow  plowing,  fall  and  spring  plowing,  subsoil- 
rolling,  fallowing,  etc.;  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each:  preparation  of 

land   for  different  crops,  as  fall  wheat,  spring  wheat,  barley,  oats,  peas,  and  maize; 
differences  in  cultivation  of  light  and  heavy  soils. 

5.  Seed  and  sowing. — Quality  of  seed;  importance  of  using  clean  and  pure  seed: 
effect  of  age  on  the  character  of  crop,  its  rapidity  of  growth,  and  liability  to  disease: 
quantity  of  seed  per  acre:  methods  and  depth  of  sowing:  change  of  seed,  why 
necessary. 

(i.  Roots. — Cultivation  of  roots  and  tubers — turnips,  mangolds,  carrots,  beets,  and 
potal 


7.  Green  fodders. — Oats  and  peas,  tares,  lucern,  sainfoin,  prickly  comfrey,  clovers, 
etc.;  their  comparative  values;  the  management  mosi  appropriate  for  each;  manage- 
ment of  pastures. 

8.  Rotation  of  crops. — Crops  which  each  kind  of  soil  is  adapted  to  produce;  suc- 
cession or  rotation  of  crops;  importance  and  necessity  of  rotation;  principles  under- 
lying it;  rotations  suitable  to  different  soils,  climates,  and  Bystems  of  forming  in 
Ontario;  their  effects  on  the  land. 

9.  Drainage. — Principles  of  drainage;  effects  on  soil  and  subsoil;  laying  out  and 
construction  of  drains. 

10.  Exhausted  lands.— Cawee  of  exhaustion;  how  avoided:  best  means  of  restoring 
and  enriching  impoverished  land. 

11.  Breeding  of  animals. — Principles  for  guidance  in  stock  breeding;  reproductive 
powers — how  strengthened  or  weakened;  pedigree  influence — how  intensified  or 
reduced;  loss  of  size  in  pedigree  stock;  how  to  control  good  or  bad  qualities;  main- 
tenance of  constitutional  vigor;  common  causes  of  barrenness  in  male  and  in  female : 
special  aptitudes  of  certain  breeds  for  different  conditions  of  soil  and  climate;  prin- 
ciples which  regulate  special  peculiarities,  such  as  early  maturity,  rapid  production 
of  flesh,  production  of  milk,  growth  of  wool,  etc. 

Horses. — Most  valuable  breeds  of  horses  for  this  province;  the  leading  characteris- 
tics of  each;  type  of  horse  required  for  farm  work;  breeding,  feeding,  and  general 
management ;  common  diseases  and  their  treatment. 

Cattle. — Characteristic  points — merits  and  demerits  of  Shorthorns,  Herefords,  Polled 
Angus,  Ayrshires,  Jerseys,  Devons,  Galloways,  and  Holsteins;  in  and*  in  breeding; 
breeding  in  the  line;  results  of  each  system;  grade  cattle;  milch  cows — points  of  a 
good  milch  cow;  general  management;  economy  of  good  management;  conditions 
affecting  quantity  and  quality  of  milk.     Common  diseases  and  remedies. 

Sheep. — Characteristics  of  different  breeds;  long-wooled,  medium-wooled,  and 
short- wooled  sheep;  crosses  between  different  breeds  compared;  influence  of  breed, 
climate,  food,  soil  and  shelter  on  the  quantity  and  quality  of  wool — evenness,  luster, 
yolk,  fineness  of  fiber,  felting  power,  etc.;  feeding;  winter  and  summer  management; 
management  of  ewes  before,  during,  and  after  lambing  season;  rearing  of  lambs. 

Swine. — Characteristics  of  the  most  important  breeds  of  pigs;  management  of  sows 
and  stores;  bacon  curing,  etc. 

12.  Food  and  feeding. — Composition  and  properties  of  the  most  important  varieties 
of  feed  and  fodder  available  to  the  Ontario  farmer;  classification  of  foods;  chemical 
results  in  the  use  of  different  foods;  "heat-producing"  and  "flesh-forming"  ingre- 
dients of  food;  best  methods  of  combining  these  in  feeding,  so  as  to  secure  desired 
results;  points  to  be  observed  in  order  to  obtain  the  full  value  of  natural  and  artificial 
foods;  increase  of  value  by  preparation  of  food;  shelter  and  warmth  as  means  of 
economizing  food;  chemical  changes  produced  in  malting  of  barley;  its  action  and 
value  as  a  feeding  material;  "good  and  bad  systems  of  feeding." 

13.  Diseases  of  crops. — When  plants  are  most  liable  to  disease;  causes  of  disease; 
chlorosis;  fungoid  diseases,  as  bunt,  smut,  rust,  and  mildew;  remedies. 

14.  Orchards. — Planting,  cultivation,  pruning,  grafting,  etc.;  best  varieties  of  fruit 
trees  for  different  soils  and  climates  of  Ontario;  diseases  and  insect  pests. 

15.  Forestry. — Planting  and  cultivation  of  forest  trees,  shade  and  ornamental 
trees,  etc. 

16.  Entomology. — Common  insects  injurious  to  vegetation;  their  habits  and  the  best 
means  of  checking  and  preventing  their  ravages. 

Books  of  reference. — Hand  Book  of  Agriculture,  embracing  soils,  manures,  rotation 
of  crops  and  live  stock,  Wrightson;  First  Principles  of  Agriculture,  Lawson  and 
Tanner;  Report  of  the  Ontario  Agricultural  Commission;  The  Canadian  Fanner's 
Manual  of  Agriculture,  Whitcombe;  Xew  American  Farm  Book,  Allen;  Farming  for 
Profit,  Read;  Talks  on  Manures,   Harris;  Elements  of  Agricultural  Chemistry  and 


8 

Geology,  Johnston  and  Cameron:  The  Chemistry  of  Common  Life,  Johnston  and 
Church;  Ilnw  Crops  Feed,  Johnson;  Bow  Grope  Grow,  Johnson;  stuck  Breeding, 
Miles;  The  Complete  Grazier,  Yonatt  and  Born;  The  Livestock  of  the  Farm,  Prin- 
gle;  Illustrated  stock  Doctor  and  Live  stock  Encyclopaedia,  Manning;  Manual  of 
Cattle  Feeding,  Armsby;  The  Shepherd's  Own  Book,  Youatt,  Skinner,  and  Randall; 
American  Shepherd,  Morrell;  The  Horse  in  the  Stable  and  the  Field,  Stonehenge; 
Harris  on  the  Pig;  Annual  reports  of  the  Entomological  Society  of  Ontario;  Harris's 
Insects  Injurious  to  Vegetation. 

Without  making  further  excursion  into  the  history  of  the  subject, 
I  take  up  11  review  of  all  the  existing  farmers'  reading  courses  in  North 
America,  arranging  them  chronologically.  This  account  is  intended 
to  be  complete  up  to  September  1,  1899. 

EXISTING  READING-COURSE  SYSTEMS. 
PENNSYLVANIA. 

The  director  of  the  experiment  station,  in  his  report  to  the  presi- 
dent of  the  college  in  1891,  suggested  a  reading  course  as  a  means  of 
popularizing  station  work.  In  July,  1892.  a  reading  course  was  estab- 
lished in  connection  with  the  Pennsylvania  State  College:  and  this 
course  is  the  most  famous  single  venture  of  its  kind. 

The- Pennsylvania  reading  course  was  modeled  upon  the  Chautauqua 
plan.  It  was  first  known  as  the  "Chautauqua  Course  of  Home  Read- 
ing in  Agriculture. "  The  college  provided  books,  and  gave  the  readers 
examinations  whenever  the  participants  were  ready  to  take  them. 
Man}T  of  the  students  found  it  difficult  to  read  the  books  understand- 
ing^, and  a  modification  of  the  plan  seemed  to  be  desirable. 

The  next  move  was  to  give  assistance,  through  correspondence,  to 
Students  who  found  the  books  to  be  difficult.  The  name  of  the  enter- 
prise was  changed  to  the  "  Chautauqua  Course  of  Home  Study  in 
Agriculture. "  More  than  3,000  students  were  registered  in  this  course. 
This  plan  also  had  its  faults:  (1)  It  was  impossible  to  secure  suitable 
text-books:  (2)  it  was  found  to  be  a  very  difficult  matter  for  most  stu- 
dents to  pursue  the  study  of  books  by  themselves  and  to  sift  out  the 
essential  from  the  nonessential  parts. 

The  next  movement  was  to  send  out  printed  lessons  on  particular 
subjects  treated  in  the  books.  These  lessons  were  first  issued  in  Novem- 
ber, 1897,  covering  seven  text-books.  The  lessons  were  designed  to 
bring  the  subject-matter  of  the  books  up  to  date,  to  describe  simple 
experiments,  to  illustrate  the  subject,  to  suggest  the  important  or 
fundamental  matters.  The  experiment  was  successful,  and  in  the  win- 
ter of  1898-99  Lessons  were  issued  on  sixteen  books  and  on  farm  book- 
keeping, making  seventeen  subjects.  In  L898,  the  name  of  the  enter- 
prise became  "Correspondence  Courses  in  Agriculture,"  and  this  title 
it  now  hear-. 

The   lessons  are  Bent  to  the  reader  one  at  a  time.     Accompanying 


each  lesson  is  a  list  of  questions  to  be  answered.  The  replies  are  sent 
to  the  superintendent  of  the  reading  course  at  the  State  college,  and 
another  lesson  is  then  mailed  to  the  reader.  In  this  way  the  superin- 
tendent keeps  in  touch  with  the  student.  He  can  also  exercise  some 
control  over  the  student  by  withholding  lessons  when  the  questions  are 
not  faithfully  answered.  Three  of  the  lessons  are  reprinted  in  Exhibits 
A,  B,  and  C,  at  the  end  of  this  paper. 

In  1898-99,  the  Pennsylvania  correspondence  courses  are  five  in 
number:  (1)  Crop  production;  (2)  live  stock  production;  (3)  horticul- 
ture and  floriculture;  (1)  dairying,  and  (5)  domestic  econonty. 

Each  course  consists  of  seven  distinct  subjects  or  books,  making 
thirty-five  books  in  all. 

On  March  1,  1899,  the  total  enrollment,  including  the  Chautauqua 
students,  was  3,116,  of  which  number  460  have  received  instruction  by 
means  of  the  lessons.  To  these  more  than  1,800  lessons  have  been 
sent.  Over  1,100  examination  papers  had  been  graded  during  the  pre- 
ceding fifteen  months.  During  the  past  college  jeav  the  time  of  the 
superintendent  and  others  aiding  in  the  work  of  the  courses  was  so 
fully  occupied  with  college  work  that  practically  no  effort  was  made 
to  further  increase  the  membership  or  to  extend  the  usefulness  of  the 
correspondence  courses.  Notwithstanding  this,  many  applications  for 
enrollment  are  constantly  being  received,  showing  that  the  practical 
agriculturists  appreciate  this  method  of  instruction.  There  are  stu- 
dents in  most  of  the  States,  and  there  are. some  in  foreign  countries. 
A  large  proportion  of  the  students  are  men  of  mature  years,  the  ages 
ranging' from  15  to  75,  the  average  of  recent  enrollments  being  about 
33  years.  The  course  is  under  the  management  of  George  C.  Watson, 
professor  of  agriculture,  State  College,  Pennsylvania. 

The  books  which  are  used  in  the  various  courses  in  Pennsylvania  are 
as  follows: 

1.  Crop  product ion. — Plant  Life  on  the  Farm,  Masters;  Soils  and 
Crops,  Morrow  and  Hunt;  Manures  and  Manuring,  Aikman;  Fertility 
of  the  Land,  Roberts;  Tile  Drainage,  Chamberlain;  The  Soil,  King; 
Farm  Bookkeeping  (no  text). 

2.  Live-stock  production, — Stock  Breeding,  Miles;  Horse  Breeding, 
Sanders;  Swine  Husbandry,  Coburn;  The  Domestic  Sheep,  Stewart; 
Poultry  Culture,  Felch;  Feeds  and  Feeding,  Henry;  A  Book  on  Silage, 
Woll. 

3.  Horticulture  and  floriculture. — Propagation  of  Plants,  Fuller; 
Principles  of  Fruit-Growing,  Bailey;  Plant  Life,  Masters;  Greenhouse 
Management,  Taft;  Manures  and  Manuring,  Aikman;  Insects  and 
Insecticides,  Weed;  The  Spraying  of  Plants,  Lodeman. 

4.  Dairying. — Milk  and  its  Products,  Wing;  Dairy  Bacteriology, 
Russell;  Milk:  Nature  and  Composition,  Aikman;  Cheddar  Cheese 
Making,  Decker;  Feeds  and  Feeding,  Henry;  Testing  Milk  and  Its 
Products,  Woll  and  Farrington;  A  Book  on  Silage,  Woll. 


10 

5.  Domestic  economy. — The  Souse  Comfortable,  Ormsbee;  Disposal 
of  Household  Wastes,  Gerhard;  ( Ihemistry  of  ( lommon  Life,  Johnston; 
Chemistry  of  Cookery,  Williams;  Boston  Cook  Book,  Mrs.  Lincoln; 
What  to  Eat  and  How  to  Serve  it,  Herrick;  Gardening  for  Pleasure. 
Henderson. 

The  following  supplementary  list  is  suggested: 

Cattle  Breeding,  Warfield;  Capons  for  Profit,  Greiner;  Practical 
Poultry  Keeping,  Wright;  An  Egg  Farm,  Stoddard;  The  Horticultur- 
ist's Rule-Book,  Bailey;  Handbook  for  Farmers  and  Dairymen,  Woll; 
Breeds  of  Live  Stock,  Sanders;  American  Standard  of  Perfection 
(Poultry);  Land  Draining,  Miles;  Ornamental  Gardening,  Long; 
Farmer's  Veterinary  Adviser,  Law;  House  Plans  for  Everybody, 
Reed. 

MICHIGAN. 

The  Michigan  Farm  Home  Reading  Circle  follows  the  earlier  system 
inaugurated  in  Pennsylvania.  It  was  started  in  December,  1892.  There 
are  five  classes;  (1)  Soils  and  crops;  (2)  live  stock;  (3)  garden  and 
orchard;  (4)  woman's  course;  and  (5)  political  science.  Any  three  of 
these  classes  constitute  a  course.  The  readers  are  regularly  enrolled  as 
members.  (See  enrollment  cards,  etc.,  in  Exhibits  F  to  J.)  Enroll- 
ment is  free  for  Michigan  readers,  but  $1  is  charged  to  nonresidents. 

When  a  member  has  completed  the  reading  of  a  book  he  may  send 
to  the  secretary  for  questions,  which  have  been  prepared  to  aid  him  in 
making  a  report  to  the  secretary  on  that  book.  If  the  report  is  satis- 
factory, a  certificate  signed  by  the  president  of  the  college  and  secretary 
of  the  farm  home  reading  circle  will  be  issued,  showing  that  he  has  com- 
pleted that  book.  A  certificate  is  sent  upon  completion  of  each  book,  and 
also  upon  the  completion  of  the  class.  When  a  member  has  completed 
any  three  of  the  classes,  and  has  sent  in  a  satisfactory  report  on  the 
same,  he  is  considered  to  have  completed  a  course  and  then  will  receive 
a  suitable  diploma.  (Exhibit  K. )  The  reports  or  examinations,  as  they 
may  be  called,  are  not  necessaiy  unless  the  reader  desires  credit  for 
his  reading,  but  they  help  to  fix  in  the  mind  the  most  prominent  truths 
brought  out  in  each  book.  A  large  majority  of  the  members  take 
advantage  of  this  feature  of  sending  reports  for  examination. 

The  work  is  confined  mostty  to  Michigan,  but  there  are  members  in 
several  States  and  provinces.  On  March  1, 1899,  there  were  302  mem- 
bers. This  figure  does  not  represent  the  total  number  of  readers, 
however,  since  the  course  is  being  taken  by  many  granges,  farmers* 
clubs,  and  organizations  instituted  for  the  particular  purpose4  of  under- 
taking the  reading.  In  many  eases  several  members  of  the  family  are 
taking  the  reading,  but  only  one  person  maybe  enrolled  as  member. 
For  the  first  three  or  four  years  the  reading  circle  met  with  only  indif- 
ferent   success,    but  by   persistent   advertising  and   careful    attention 


11 

to  correspondence  it  has  grown  steadily,  and  is  now  in  a  prosperous 
condition  and  is  doing  much  good.  The  circle  is  in  charge  of  Prof. 
II.  W.  Mumford,  Agricultural  College,  Michigan. 

The  books  in  use  in  the  Michigan  Farm  I  Ionic  Reading  Circle  are  as 

follows: 

1.  Soils  and  crops. — First  Principles  of  Agriculture,  Voorhees; 
Soils  and  Crops,  Morrow  and  Hunt;  Fertility  of  the  Land,  Roberts; 
The  Silo  and  Silage,  Cook;  Tile  Drainage,  Chamberlain,  or  The  Soil, 

Kino-. 

2.  Live  stock. — Principles  of  Agriculture,  Bailey;  Horses,  Cattle, 
Sheep  and  Swine,  Curtis;  Stock  Breeding,  Miles;  Feeds  and  Feeding, 
Henry;  American  Dairying,  Curler;  Cattle  Breeding,  Warfield;  The 
Domestic  Sheep,  Stewart;  Swine  Husbandry,  Coburn;  Horse  Breed- 
ing. Sanders;  Guide  to  Successful  Poultry  Keeping,  Sewell  and  Tilson; 
or  Farm  News  Poultry  Book,  Purvis. 

3.  Garden  and  orchard.- — American  Fruit  Culturist,  Thomas; 
How  to  Make  the  Garden  Pay,  Greiner;  Ornamental  Gardening, 
Long;  Insects  and  Insecticides,  Weed;  Gardening  for  Pleasure,  Hen- 
derson; Propagation  of  Plants,  Fuller;  Home  Floriculture,  Rexford; 
or  Practical  Floriculture,  Henderson. 

4.  Woman's  course. — Practical  Sanitary  and  Economic  Cooking, 
Abel;  Home  Economics,  Parloa;  The  Boston  Cooking  School  Book, 
Farmer;  Chemistry  of  Cooking  and  Cleaning,  Richards  and  Elliott; 
A  Study  of  Child  Nature,  Harrison. 

5.  Political  science. — Elements  of  Political  Economy,  Ely;  Political 
Economy,  Walker;  American  Commonwealth  (1  vol.)  Bryce. 

The  following  abook  shelf,"  a  supplementary  list,  is  recommended; 

Agriculture  and  horticulture. — Farmer's  Veterinary  Adviser,  Law; 
Grasses  of  North  America,  Beal;  How  the  Farm  Pays,  Henderson 
and  Crozier;  Storer's  Agriculture  (3  vols.);  Plant  Life  on  the  Farm, 
Masters;  Land  Drainage,  Miles;  Facts  for  Horse  Owners,  Magner. 

Political  science.— Jevon's  Money  and  Mechanism  of  Exchange; 
Epochs  of  American  History  (3  vols.);  Small  Talks  About  Business, 
Rice;  Farmer's  Tariff  Manual,  Strange;  The  Sophisms  of  Free  Trade, 
Byles;  The  Sophisms  of  Protection,  Bastiat. 

Miscellaneous. — Letters  to  a  Daughter,  Starrat;  Common  Sense  in 
the  Household,  Harlan;  Amenities  of  Home;  Timothy  Titcomb's  Let- 
ters, Holland;  Emerson's  Essays  (2  vols.);  Scott's  Poems;  The  Fair 
Maid  of  Perth,  Scott;  Julius  Caesar,  Shakespeare;  Scarlet  Letter, 
Hawthorne;  Longfellow's  Poems  (complete). 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

In  January,  1894,  the  New  Hampshire  College  of  Agriculture  and 
the  Mechanic  Arts  established  a  nonresident  course  in  agriculture. 
The  course  is  designed  primarily  to  meet  the  needs  of  those  farmers' 


12 

Bona  who  are  unable  to  leave  home  to  attend  college,  but  who  feel  the 
need  of  the  fuller  knowledge  of  their  work  which  the  college  offers. 
It  has  enrolled  a  considerable  Dumber  of  such  students,  and  also  has 

attracted  many  young  men  in  cities  who  intend  to  become  farmer.-. 

The  course  is  conducted  as  a  correspondence  course,  books  and  bulle- 
tins being  sent  the  student,  who  studies  them  and  returns  answers  to 
examination  questions. 

This  nonresident  course  is  free  to  all.  without  examination.  Stu- 
dents may  work  for  a  certificate  or  not.  Those  who  work  for  a  certifi- 
cate send  answers  to  examination  questions  as  fast  a-  studies  are 
completed.  Those  who  do  not  work  for  a  certificate  submit  a  state- 
ment that  the  requisite  reading  has  been  carefully  done.  The  work  is 
divided  into  exercises,  and  an  exercise  is  estimated  at  ten  pages  of 
reading  matter  in  book  or  bulletin.  The  satisfactory  completion  of 
600  exercises  entitles  the  student  to  a  certificate.  Under  general  con- 
ditions it  is  estimated  that  the  completion  of  these  exercises  will  require 
about  two  years.  Each  student  working  for  a  certificate  is  required  to 
take  given  general  studies,  and  then  to  select  at  least  three  special 
studies.  The  required  general  studies  are  soils,  tillage,  noxious  insects, 
fungus  diseases,  meteorology,  laws  of  plant  growth,  farm  and  house- 
hold chemistry,  and  fertilizers.  Special  studies  are  dairying  and  stock 
feeding,  poultry  keeping,  orchard  fruits,  small  fruits,  commercial  horti- 
culture and  market  gardening,  vegetables,  floriculture,  plant  propaga- 
tion, and  forestry.  Students  not  working  for  a  certificate  may  select 
any  of  the  above  subjects,  but  it  is  recommended  that  they  pursue  the 
prescribed  lines  of  general  reading  in  connection  with  special  subjects. 
The  course  is  in  charge  of  Prof.  C.  W.  Burkett.  Durham.  X.  H. 

The  last  circular  of  instructions  was  issued  December,  1895.  The 
bulletins  and  books  recommended  in  that  circular  are  herein  tran- 
scribed. It  will  be  seen  that  the  New  Hampshire  course  is  very  rich 
in  literature.  "In  addition  to  the  books  used  for  general  studies  in 
the  course,  the  college  furnishes  free  bulletins  of  its  own  experiment 
station  as  well  as  those  of  some  other  stations:  also,  through  the  courtesy 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  valuable  series  of 
Farmers'  Bulletins  issued  by  that  Department.  Through  the  courtesy 
of  the  Cornell  University  Experiment  Station  this  college  has  been 
able  to  furnish  nonresident  students  with  the  important  bulletins  on 
horticulture  and  kindred  subjects  issued  by  that  station." 

1.  General  studies. — Soils  and  Crops.  Morrow  and  Hunt:  Talks 
Afield,  Bailey:  Fruit  Culture.  Strong:  Agriculture.  Wallace:  Spraying 
( Jrops,  Weed:  Fertilizer-.  Gregory:  The  Poultry  Yard.  Burpee:  Orna- 
mental Gardening,  Long:  Fungi  and  Fungicides,  Weed:  Chemicals 
and  (lover.  Collingwood:  Potato  Culture.  Terry:  The  Nursery-Book, 
Bailey;  The  Soil,  King:  Land  Draining.  Miles;  The  Beautiful 
Flower  Garden,  Mathews;  Insects  and  Insecticides.  Weed. 


13 

2.  Dairying  and  stochfeedmg.-  American  Dairying,  Gurler;  Dairy 
Science,  Woll;  Cattle  Breeding,  Warfield;  Cattle  Feeding,  Stewart; 
Root  Cropa  for  Stock  Feeding,  Burpee. 

3.  Poultry  keeping. — Poultry  Culture,   Felch;   The  Business  Hen, 

Collingwood;  The  Poultry  Yard.  Burpee;  Capons  for  Profit,  Greiner; 
Natural  and  Artificial  Duck  Culture,  Rankin. 
1.   Commercial  horticulturi   and  market  gardening. — Gardening  for 

Profit,  Henderson;  Success  in  Market  Gardening,  Rawson;  How  to 
Grow  Mushrooms,  Falconer:  Selection  in  Seed  (Trowing.  Burpee; 
Greenhouse  Construction,  Tat't. 

5.  Orchard  fruits. — Practical  Fruit  Grower,  Maynard;  Field  Notes 
on  Apple  Culture,  Bailey;  Fruit  Culturist,  Thomas;  Amateur  Fruit 
Growing,  Green;  Pear  Culture  for  Profit,  Quinn;  Quince  Culture, 
Meech;  Peach  Culture,  Fulton. 

6.  SmaU  fruits. — Success  with  Small  Fruits,  Roe;  A  B  C  of 
Strawberry  Culture,  Terry;  Grape  Culturist,  Fuller;  American  Grape 
Training,  Bailey. 

7.  Vegetables. — How  to  Grow  Squashes,  Gregory;  Onion  Raising 
Gregory;  Onions  for  Profit,  Greiner;  Cabbages  and  Cauliflowers, 
Gregory;  How  to  Grow  Cabbages  and  Cauliflowers,  Gregory;  Celery 
for  Profit,  Greiner;  A  Kitchen  Garden  of  One  Acre;  How  to  Grow 
Melons  for  Market,  Burpee;  Potatoes  for  Profit,  Van  Ornam;  My 
Handkerchief  Garden,  Barnard. 

8.  blowers. — Practical  Floriculture,  Henderson;  The  Rose,  Ell- 
wanger;  All  About  Sweet  Peas,  Hutchins;  Pansies,  Poppies,  and 
Sweet  Peas,  Hutchins;  Chrysanthemum  Culture,  Morton;  American 
Carnation  Culture,  Lamborn;  Bulbs  and  Tuberous-rooted  Plants, 
Allen;  Window  Gardening. 

9.  Plant  propagation. — The  Propagation  of  Plants,  Fuller;  Cross- 
breeding and  Hybridizing,  Bailey. 

10.  Forestry. — Forest  Planting,  Jarchow;  Studies  in  Forestry, 
Hasten. 

CONNECTICUT. 

The  Storrs  Agricultural  College  inaugurated  correspondence  instruc- 
tion in  October.  1896.  The  work  is  more  nearly  a  correspondence 
school  idea  than  a  reading  course.  It  is  definite  college  extension  of 
the  best  order.  The  extension  work  is  a  department  of  Storrs  Agri- 
cultural College  (now  called  the  Connecticut  Agricultural  College). 

A  two  years'  course  is  given,  and  the  student  who  completes  the 
course  satisfactorily  attends  the  commencement  exercises  at  Storrs  and 
receives  a  diploma  of  graduation.  The  course  comprises  two  parte, 
one  for  men  and  one  for  women.  The  object  of  the  course  is  to  pro- 
vide home  study  as  nearly  as  possible  like  that  prosecuted  at  college. 
Ain'  resident  of  Connecticut  may  enroll,  upon  the  payment  of  25  cents 


14 

and  agreement  to  give  three  hours  a  week  to  the  prescribed  subjects. 
Examinations  arc  conducted  through  correspondence.  The  ten  stu- 
dents who  pass  the  most  satisfactory  examination  on  the  entire  course 
of  study,  are  invited  to  prepare  essays.  From  these  essays  the  best 
live  are  selected  to  be  read  by  I  heir  authors  at  the  commencement 
exercises  of  the  extension  department  at  Storrs.  At  the  commence- 
ment, certificates  or  diplomas  arc  awarded  to  all  who  have  completed 
the  course,  and  persons'  who  are  unable  to  attend  receive  their  diplomas 
by  mail. 

The  two  years*  term  of  study  is  divided  into  four  periods  in  each 
year:  October  and  November,  December  and  January,  February  and 
March.  April  and  May.  Commencement  for  extension  students  occurs 
during  the  regular  college  commencement  week. 

Each  subject  in  the  course  is  under  the  special  supervision  of  one  of 
the  college  staff,  and  this  officer  prepares  syllabuses  and  questions  cov- 
ering his  subjects  and  conducts  the  examinations  therein.  When  any 
rural  organization  has  a  membership  of  ten  pursuing  the  course  the 
college  agrees,  so  far  as  practicable,  to  furnish  one  or  more  lectures. 

Persons  who  have  completed  the  regular  two  years*  course  may 
organize  into  circles  of  ten  or  more  and  apply  for  further  instruction 
in  "subject  studies."  The  college  places  in  the  hands  of  the  circle  a 
library  of  50  or  100  volumes.  By  a  system  of  reference  cards  several 
courses  are  outlined,  sufficient  for  a  year's  reading.  One  examination 
paper  is  forwarded  by  the  department  at  the  end  of  the  year,  covering- 
each  subject  studied.  Courses  are  provided  in  general  agriculture, 
fruit  culture,  market  gardening,  poultry  raising,  floriculture,  botany, 
agricultural  chemistry,  veterinary,  foods,  sanitation,  geology,  forestry. 
English  literature,  history,  and  political  economy.  The  first  year  saw 
an  enrollment  of  216  members,  and  561  volumes  were  circulated.  The 
work  is  growing.  In  June,  1898,  25  persons  received  certificates.  Two 
circles  of  ten  or  more  had  completed  the  course,  and  to  these  were  sent 
the  first  traveling  library.  The  books  are  kept  one  year,  and  they  are 
then  sent  to  the  circles  which  complete  the  work  in  the  following  year. 
At  the  present  time  fully  275  persons  are  regularly  enrolled. 

The  traveling  library  idea  has  been  very  successful.  It  is  a  kind  of 
post-graduate  course.  The  readers  often  receive  more  benefit  from 
these  libraries  than  from  the  two  years'  preliminary  reading.  The 
extension  work  is  in  the  hands  of  Prof.  A.  B.  Peebles,  Storrs. 
Connecticut. 

The  books  used  in  the  Connecticut  course  are  as  follows: 

1.  First  year. — {a)  For  women. — Home  Floriculture,  Bexford;  Easi- 
est Ways  in  Housekeeping  and  Cooking.  Campbell;  Realm  of  Nature. 
Mill;  Story  of  the  Plants.  Allen. 

(h)  For  men. — First  Principles  of  Agriculture.  Voorhees;  Practical 
Farm  Chemistry, Greiner;  Mill  and  Allen  as  above. 


15 

2.  Second  yeanr.  (a)  For  women, — Household  Economics,  Campbell, 
or  The  Way  We  Did  at  Cooking  School,  Reed;  Hygiene  and  Physical 
Culture  for  Women,  Galbraith,  or  Physical  Development  and  Exer- 
cise for  Women.  Bissel;  Realm  of  Nature  parti,  Mill:  The  Story  of 
Germ  Life,  Conn. 

(//)  For  men.  -The  Principles  of  Fruit-Growing,  Bailey,  or  Milk 
and  its  Products,  Wing;  The  Spraying  of  Plants,  Lodeman,  or  Farm- 
ers' Bulletins  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  on  the 
Dairy  Herd,  Feeding,  etc.;  Mill  and  Conn  as  above. 

Five  Farmers'  Bulletins  (Nos.  16,  22,  32,  55,  and  58),  issued  by  the 
Cnited  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  have  been  bound  in  one 
volume,  and  make  a  serviceable  treatise  on  dairy  work  and  stock  feeding. 

Two  traveling  libraries  are  now  in  circulation,  as  follows: 

Lihra/ry  JVo  1. — Yearbook,  1897,  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture: Principles  of  Modern  Dairy  Practice,  Woll;  Horticulturist's 
Rule- Book,  Bailey;  Pruning-Book,  Bailey;  Agriculture  (3  volumes), 
Storer;  How  to  Make  the  Garden  Pay,  Greiner;  Domesticated  Ani- 
mals, Shaler;  Faith  and  Doubt  in  Poets,  Armstrong;  American  Com- 
monwealth, Bryce;  Labor  Copartnership,  Lloyd;  Boston  Cook  Book, 
Lincoln;  Household  Art,  Wheeler;  According  to  Season,  Dana; 
Familiar  Flowers,  Mathews;  Lessons  with  Plants,  Bailey;  Ten  New 
England  Blossoms,  Weed;  Birds  of  Village  and  Field,  Merriam;  Drink- 
ing Water  and  Ice  Supplies,  Prudden:  Charles  Darwin,  Poulton;  Justus 
Von  Liebig,  Shenstone;  Eye  Spy,  Gibson;  With  Feet  to  the  Earth, 
Skinner:  Chemistry  of  Common  Life,  Johnstone;  Sea  and  Land,  Sha- 
ler; Feeds  and  Feeding,  Henry;  Hero  and  Homespun,  Barton:  Light 
Side  of  Science,  Wilson;  Good  Cooking,  Rorer;  Hugh  Wynne  (2  vol- 
umes), Mitchell:  How  to  Judge  a  Horse,  Bach:  Riverby,  Burroughs; 
American  Ideals,  Roosevelt;  Economic  Entomology,  Smith:  House 
Plants,  Hillhouse;  Story  of  the  Stars,  Chambers:  Testing  Milk  and 
Products,  Farrington  and  Woll;  Beauty  of  Form,  Steele  and  Adams: 
First  Crossing  of  Greenland,  Nansen;  Customs  and  Fashions  in  Old 
New  England,  Earle;  Art  Out  of  Doors,  Van  Rensselaer;  History  of 
Connecticut  (2  volumes),  Trumbull;  The  Soil,  King:  American  Liter- 
ature, Bates;  Modern  Dairy  Practice,  Grotenfelt;  Milk,  Its  Nature 
and  Composition,  Aikman. 

Library  No.  2. — Yearbook  1897,  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture; Horses  and  Stables,  Fitzwy  grain;  Our  Farming.  Terry:  Pro- 
ceedings of  First  Annual  Session.  National  Congress  of  Mothers; 
Studio  Neighbors,  Gibson;  American  Fruit  Culturist.  Thomas:  Milch 
Cows  and  Dairy  Farming,  Flint:  Stock  Breeding.  Miles:  Boston  Cook- 
ing School  Book,  Farmer:  How  to  Know  the  Wild  Flowers,  Dana:  Out- 
lines of  Earth's  History,  Shaler:  Window  and  Parlor  Gardening,  Jon- 
son:  Eating  and  Drinking,  Hoy:  The  Business  Hen,  Collingwood: 
Poultry  Culture,  Felch;  Social  Evolution,  Kidd;  Chemistry  of  Cook- 


16 

Lng,  Williams;  A-Birding  on  a  Broncho,  Merriam;  Life  Histories  of 
American  Insects.  Weed;  Year  in  the  Fields,  Burroughs;  Ye  Gentle- 
woman's Housewifery,  Hooker;  Insect  Life,  Corns tock;  Bulbs  and 
Tuberous-Rooted  Plants,  Allen;  Woman's  Work  in  America,  Meyer; 
This  Country  of  Ours,  Harrison;  Chats  with  Girls,  Chester;  Chemistry 
of  Daily  Life,  Lassar-Cohn;  American  Highways,  Shaler;  Practical 
Poultry  Keeping,  Wright;  Insects  Injurious  to  Farm  and  Garden, 
Treat;  Philip's  Experiments,  Trowbridge;  The  Horse.  Flower;  Twen- 
tieth Century  City,  Strong;  Procession  of  the  Flowers,  Higginson; 
Standish  of  Standish,  Austin;  Betty  Alden,  Austin;  Fertility  of  the 
Land,  Roberts;  Rescue  of  an  Old  Place,  Bobbins;  Vegetable  Garden- 
ing, Green;  Evolution  of  Horticulture  in  New  England,  Slade;  Plant- 
Breeding,  Baile}T;  Garden-Making,  Baile}T;  Bird  Ways,  Miller;  Chem- 
istry of  Dairying,  Snyder;  Dust  and  its  Dangers,  Prudden;  Story  of 
the  Solar  System,  Chambers;  Story  of  the  Earth  in  Past  Ages,  Seeley; 
Citizens  in  Training,  Wells;  Flowers:  How  to  Grow  Them,  Rexford; 
Biggie  Poultry  Book,  Biggie. 

NEW  YORK. 

In  connection  with  its  extension  work  in  agriculture,  Cornell  Uni- 
versity made  a  beginning  at  a  reading  course  in  November,  1896.  The 
reading  was  confined  to  horticultural  subjects,  because  the  extension 
work  was  at  that  time  confined  to  that  field,  and  the  reading  was  to  be 
a  corollary  of  the  itinerant  schools  of  horticulture  which  were  held  in 
various  parts  of  the  State.  The  motives  of  the  movement  were  set  forth 
as  follows: 

Most  of  the  reading  of  farmers  is  of  such  a  scattered  and  haphazard  character  that 
the  reader  is  unable  to  obtain  any  consecutive  or  fundamental  ideas  upon  the  various 
subjects.  It  is  suggested  that  each  local  farmers'  club,  grange,  or  horticultural 
society — or  a  neighborhood  gathering,  when  other  organizations  do  not  exist — take 
up  a  prescribed  line  of  reading  and  thinking  for  the  coming  winter.  The  company 
which  desires  to  take  up  such  a  course  should  be  thoroughly  organized,  and  each 
reader  should  secure  and  own  the  various  bulletins  and  books  which  are  to  be  read. 
At  each  meeting  a  prescribed  number  of  pages  is  laid  out  to  be  read  before  the  next 
gathering.  Upon  coming  together  the  leader  asks  a  member  to  read  the  first  para- 
graph of  the  exercise  or  lesson,  and  to  give  his  opinion  of  the  same.  Discussion  is 
then  called  for.  Each  paragraph  is  treated  in  similar  manner.  It  is  obvious  that 
one  of  the  best  subjects  to  select  for  the  first  readings  is  the  soil  and  its  management. 
Three  or  four  meetings  could  be  very  profitably  spent  upon  this  general  topic.  From 
this  it  would  be  well  to  pass  to  the  fertilizing  of  the  land.  After  this,  various  special 
topics  could  be  taken  up,  depending  upon  the  interests  in  the  locality. 

Books  and  bulletins  were  recommended  in  (1)  soils  and  tillage;  (2) 
manures  and  fertilizers;  (3)  fruits  and  their  cultivation;  (4)  spraying, 
insects,  diseases;  (5)  the  making  of  home  grounds;  and  (6)  helps  for 
teachers. 


17 

The  mere  recommendation  of  hooks  and  bulletins  to  be  read  was 
hardly  worth  the  while.  A  reading'  course  will  not  go  of  itself.  Some 
one  must  furnish  the  steam.  At  this  juncture  the  detail  of  the  work 
fell  to  the  hands  of  John  W.  Spencer,  who  is  a  farmer  and  not  college 

bred.  He  saw  the  problem  as  tanners  see  it,  and  he  took  up  the  work 
with  tact  and  enthusiasm.  Of  the  bulletins  recommended,  two  had 
been  prepared  with  special  reference  to  use  in  itinerant  schools  and 
reading  courses,  although  they  were  founded  upon  experiments  made 
at  the  experiment  station.  These  are  "The  Texture  of  the  Soil"  and 
"The  Conservation  of  Moisture"  (Nos.  119,  120).  These  bulletins 
were  sent  to  farmers  who  Avere  likely  to  be  interested  in  a  readi no- 
course,  and  correspondence  was  opened  on  the  subjects  which  they 
suggested.  As  a  result  of  this  undertaking,  there  were  1,500  readers 
at  the  close  of  the  reading  season,  April,  1897. 

In  the  winter  of  1897-98  the  effort  was  continued  with  the  same  bul- 
letins, and  a  short  essay  on  the  soil  was  prepared  and  used  as  a  basis 
of  study  and  correspondence.  Thus  arose  the  Cornell  Reading  Lesson, 
wThich  is  now  the  basis  of  the  New  York  Reading  Course.  This  lesson 
is  a  treatise  in  itself,  not  a  commentary  on  a  book. 

At  the  close  of  the  reading  season  of  1897-98  the  list  of  actual 
readers  or  members  had  been  increased  to  nearly  5,000.  This  increase 
was  secured  wholly  by  means  of  the  single  topic  of  physical  conditions 
of  soils.  In  the  winter  of  1898-99  the  same  plan  was  continued,  but 
five  successive  topics  or  lessons  were  used,  and  in  this  season  the 
actual  enrolled  readers  were  increased  to  8,605.  Of  these  persons 
8,169  reside  in  New  York  State,  411  in  other  States,  and  25  in  foreign 
countries.  It  is  confidently  expected  that  the  number  will  be  doubled 
in  the  next  reading  season. 

The  gist  of  the  New  York  plan  is  to  give  the  farmer  a  short  spe- 
cially prepared  lesson,  and  then  to  quiz  him  on  it.  The  motive  is  to 
reach  the  many,  not  the  few.  The  farmer  who  can  and  will  read  books 
can  take  care  of  himself,  but  the  one  who  can  not  or  will  not  needs 
help,  whether  he  wants  it  or  not.  The  idea  is  to  get  the  rank  and 
file  to  read  books  by  first  interesting  them  in  simple,  short,  and 
easily  digested  matter.  When  the  farmer  is  once  interested  it  needs 
only  good  administrative  machinery  to  keep  him  interested  and  to  lead 
him  on. 

The  operation  of  the  Cornell  plan  as  now  prosecuted  comprises:  (1) 
Securing  the  farmers  name;  (2)  sending  him  a  lesson,  with  an  inclosure 
containing  questions  (called  a  quiz);  (3)  the  active  organization  of 
reading  clubs;  and  (4)  the  sending  of  special  inspectors  and  lecturers 
to  these  clubs. 

There  are  many  ways  of  securing  the  farmer's  name.  The  best  one 
has  been  the  paragraphing  of  the  local  newspapers.  A  paragraph 
calling  attention  to  the  reading  course  has  been  sent  to  the  country 
8087— No.  72 2 


18 

papers  of  the  State.  Public-spirited  men  have  been  asked  to  furnish 
names.  Granges,  horticultural  societies,  and  other  organizations  have 
aided.  When  the  farmer  receives  the  lesson  he  is  informed  that  a  con- 
tinuance of  the  favor  is  conditioned  upon  his  answering  the  questions. 
He  is  not  a  member  of  the  reading  course  until  he  makes  a  personal 
application  therefor.  Every  inducement  is  offered  to  persuade  readers 
to  organize  themselves  into  small  clubs,  jmd  one  of  the  strongest 
inducements  is  the  promise  of  a  speaker  from  the  university  to  those 
clubs  which  do  the  best  work.  In  the  past  winter  three  fanners  were 
hired  to  organize  clubs  in  their  respective  counties,  and  the  experi- 
ment was  successful.  Small  clubs  are  preferred — those  of  six  to 
twelve  persons  who  meet  at  the  homes  of  the  various  members.  It  is 
the  purpose  to  send  an  inspector  to  the  clubs  once  during  the  winter, 
to  see  how  they  are  getting  on.  The  New  York  course  is  free  and  is 
maintained  from  a  State  appropriation  for  the  extension  of  agricultural 
knowledge.     The  course  is  in  charge  of  L.  H.  Bailey,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Every  effort  is  made  to  cause  the  farmer  to  get  the  most  out  of  each 
lesson.  The  work  can  not  be  done  hastily  nor  loosely.  After  having 
had  a  fair  trial,  the  shiftless  reader  is  cut  off.  In  the  winter  of  1898-99 
five  illustrated  lessons  were  issued,  as  follows:  (1)  The  soil,  what  it  is; 
(2)  tillage  and  underdrainage,  reasons  why;  (3)  fertility  of  the  soil, 
what  it  is;  (4)  how  the  plant  gets  its  food  from  the  soil,  and  (5)  how  the 
plant  gets  its  food  from  the  air.  These  lessons  attempt  to  state  prin- 
ciples, not  directions  for  practice.  At  the  end  of  the  reading-course 
season  a  round-up  lesson  is  published,  giving  answers  to  all  quizzes. 
In  the  coming  Avinter  these  lessons  will  be  used  again  for  the  recruits; 
but  others  will  be  prepared  for  the  veterans.  Books  are  recommended 
for  special  clubs  and  special  readers.  Samples  of  the  lessons  are  shown 
in  Exhibits  D  and  E. 

WEST  VIRGINIA. 

Late  in  the  fall  of  1897  a  uhome  reading  course  in  agriculture" 
was  offered  to  the  farmers  of  West  Virginia.  At  the  close  of  the  first 
year,  June,  1898,  89  students  had  been  enrolled.  Although  the  course 
has  been  in  operation  little  more  than  a  year,  132  readers  are  enrolled, 
most  of  whom  are  doing  good  and  enthusiastic  work. 

The  work  in  the  course  is  founded  upon  the  reading  of  books.  The 
course  runs  in  four  divisions — crop  production,  live-stock  production, 
horticulture  and  floriculture,  and  rural  economy.  A  regular  course 
consists  of  any  two  of  the  four  divisions;  or  the  student  may  elect  any 
ten  books  out  of  the  twenty  offered.  Any  student  who  has  completed 
a  subject  will,  upon  notifying  the  college,  receive  an  examination 
paper  on  that  subject,  to  which  written  answers  are  to  be  returned, 
accompanied  with  a  statement  upon  honor  that  the  answers  are  the 
unaided   work  of  the  person    sending   them.     These  answers  will  be 


19 

graded,  and  anyone  receiving  a  grade  of  75  per  cent  or  more  in  fche 
studies  of  any  two  divisions  will  receive  a  suitable  certificate  signed  by 
the  president  of  the  board  of  regents  and  the  dean  of  the  college.  For 
this  certificate  a  charge  of  $1  will  be  made,  which  is  only  sufficient  to 

cover  the  actual  cost  of  material  and  engraving. 

The  course  is  open  to  any  applicant,  without  fees.  The  subjects  may 
be  taken  up  in  any  order  desired  by  the  reader.  The  work  is  in  charge 
of  Prof.  T.  C.  Atkeson,  dean  of  the  College  of  Agriculture,  Morgan- 
town,  W.  Va. 

The  books  used  in  the  West  Virginia  course  are  the  following: 

1.  Crop  production. — Plant  Life  on  the  Farm,  Masters;  Soils  and 
Crops,  Morrow  and  Hunt;  Manures  and  Manuring,  Aikman;  The  Soil, 
King;  Tile  Drainage,  Chamberlain. 

2.  Live-stock  production. — Manual  of  Cattle  Feeding,  Armsby; 
Stock  Breeding,  Miles;  Swine  Husbandry,  Coburn;  American  Dairy- 
ing, Gurler;  Poultry  Culture,  Felch. 

3.  Horticulture  and  floricidture. — The  Propagation  of  Plants,  Fuller; 
The  Fruit  Garden,  Barry;  Practical  Floriculture,  Henderson;  Insects 
and  Insecticides,  Weed;  Spraying,  Lodeman. 

4.  Rural  economy. — Bookkeeping  for  Farmers,  Atkeson;  Farm  Law, 
Bennett;  How  to  Cooperate,  Myrick;  The  House  Comfortable,  Orms- 
bee;  Chemistry  of  Cookery,  Williams. 

SOUTH  DAKOTA. 

South  Dakota  uses  the  Pennsylvania  system.  The  work  was  founded 
on  the  opening  of  1899.  Five  courses  are  offered,  any  or  all  of  which 
may  be  pursued.  Each  series  or  course  contains  five  books  on  related 
subjects  which  are  usually  so  arranged  as  to  develop  the  subject  natu- 
rally, leading  from  simpler  to  more  complex  problems.  In  special 
cases  options  are  offered  in  the  supplemental  list,  thus  varying  the 
course  to  meet  the  special  needs  of  the  reader.  The  superintendent 
endeavors  to  arrange  such  courses  to  meet  special  needs. 

When  beginning  a  book  the  student  receives  from  the  college  a 
printed  lesson  of  instruction  covering  certain  parts  of  the  work  and 
making  prominent  the  most  salient  points.  Upon  the  completion  of 
this  section  the  reader  fills  out  answers  to  questions  asked  and  mails 
them  to  the  superintendent,  who,  upon  examination,  makes  needful 
suggestions  or  corrects  erroneous  impressions  when  necessary.  When 
the  work  of  one  section  is  satisfactorily  completed  the  instructions  for 
the  next  section  are  sent,  until  the  book  is  completed.  The  work  is  in 
charge  of  Prof.  Edgar  A  Burnett,  Brookings,  S.  Dak. 

The  courses  and  the  books  are  these: 

1.  Crop  production. — Plant  Life  on  the  Farm,  Masters;  Fertility  of 
the  Land,  Roberts;  The  Soil,  King;  Manures  and  Manuring,  Aikman; 
Irrigation  Farming,  Wilcox. 


20 

l\  Livestock  production. — Stock  Breeding,  Miles;  The  Domestic 
Sheep,  Stewart;  Feeds  and  Feeding,  Henry;  Swine  Husbandry,  Coburn; 
Manual  of  Veterinary  Hygiene,  Smith. 

3.  Horticulturi  <md floriculture.  Principles  of  Plant  Culture,  Goff; 
Amateur  Fruit  Growing,  Green;  Vegetable  Gardening,  Green:  Vick's 
Home  Floriculture,  Rexford;  Irrigation  Farming,  Wilcox. 

4.  Dairying. — Milk  and  its  Products,  Wing;  Chemistry  of  Dairy- 
ing. Snyder;  Feeds  and  Feeding.  Henry:  Cattle  Breeding,  Warfield; 
Silos.  Ensilage,  and  Silage.  Miles. 

5.  Do//'  momy. — The  House  Comfortable.  Ormsbee;  Home 
Sanitation,  Richards  and  Talbot:  Chemistry  of  Cooking  and  Cleaning:, 
Richards  and  Elliott;  Boston  Cooking  School  Book.  Farmer;  Food 
Products  of  the  World,  Green. 

The  following  supplementary  books  are  recommended: 
Cattle  Breeding.  Warfield;  Horse  Breeding,  Sanders;  American 
Dairying,  Gurler;  Cheddar  Cheese  Making,  Decker;  Hand  Book  for 
Farmers  and  Dairymen,  Woll;  Farmers'  Veterinary  Adviser,  Law; 
Poultry  Culture.  Felch;  American  Standard  of  Perfection  (Poultry); 
How  Crops  Grow,  Johnson:  How  Crops  Feed,  Johnson;  Agriculture 
in  Some  of  its  Relations  with  Chemistry,  Storer;  The  Chemistry  of 
Common  Life,  Johnson;  The  Great  World's  Farm,  Gave:  Living  Plants 
and  their  Properties,  Arthur  and  McDougal;  Garden-Making,  Bailey: 
Greenhouse  Construction.  Taft;  Greenhouse  Management,  Taft;  The 
Nursery-Book,  Bailey;  Lessons  with  Plants.  Bailey;  Principles  of  Fruit- 
Growing.  Bailey;  Plant-Breeding.  Bailey;  Cottage  Houses,  Reed:  Barn 
Plans  and  Outbuildings:  Testing  Milk  and  Its  Products,  Farrington 
and  Woll;  Manual  of  Veterinary  Hygiene,  Smith. 

OTHER  VENTTJRES. 

In  some  of  the  other  States  something  has  been  done  toward  the 
establishing  of  reading  courses  for  farmers,  and  these  efforts  may  be 
reviewed, 

In  Indiana  a  movement  was  begun  six  or  eight  years  ago  to  organ- 
ize farmers'  reading  circles.  A  few  local  circles  were  organized  and 
did  good  work  for  a  time,  but  from  lack  of  funds  and  help  the  enter- 
prise had  to  be  dropped.  The  plan  was  to  choose  two  books  that 
might  be  read  during  the  winter,  and  to  urge  the  readers  to  organize 
themselves  into  circles  which  should  convene  about  once  in  two  weeks. 
It  was  dt sired  that  one  book  pertain  to  general  literature  or  science 
and  the  other  specifically  to  agriculture.  One  year  Bailey's  Talks 
Afield  and  Warington's  Chemistry  of  the  Farm  were  used. 

In  Rhode  Island  a  reading  course,  or  college  extension,  was  estab- 
lished in  connection  with  the  agricultural  college,  and  thirty  or  forty 
>ns  were  enrolled.  After  having  been  in  operation  four  years, 
the  enterprise  i-  in  abeyance,  owing  to  lack  of  help  for  pushing  it. 


21 

The  Texas  Agricultural  College  offered  ;t  farmers'  reading  course 
for  several  years,  but  the  announcement  has  been  removed  from  the 
college  catalogue  because  of  lack  of  interest  on  the  partof  the  farmers. 
Three  or  four  courses  were  provided,  based  upon  individual  needs. 

In  Missouri  an  effort  was  made  at  the  Stale  University  two  or 
three  years  ago  to  organize  reading  courses  in  agriculture,  but  it  met 
with  insufficient  cooperation.  However,  for  the  past  two  years  the 
students  in  the  short  winter  courses  in  agriculture  and  horticulture 
have  organized  reading  courses,  and  these  have  stimulated  interest 
after  the  students  have  left  college.  Through  these  organizations  the 
University  has  been  enabled  to  conduct  cooperative  experimental  work. 

In  Tennessee  the  institute  officers  take  an  exhibit  illustrating  some 
of  the  work  of  the  experiment  station.  Part  of  this  exhibit  is  a  small 
collection  of  books  called  a  "Model  Farmer's  Library."  Farmers  are 
asked  to  look  over  the  books  and  are  encouraged  to  order  them. 

In  Virginia  the  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute  sends 
circulating  libraries  to  a  number  of  the  colored  public  schools  of  the 
State.  Each  of  these  libraries  contains  two  or  three  agricultural 
books.  Back  numbers  of  agricultural  papers  are  distributed  from  the 
library  of  the  institute  to  colored  farmers. 

In  Massachusetts  catalogues  of  the  best  books  on  subjects  connected 
with  agriculture  have  been  issued  from  time  to  time.  Some  }^ears  ago 
an  offer  was  made  to  the  farmers  to  organize  reading  courses,  but  so 
few  availed  themselves  of  the  opportunity  that  the  matter  was  dropped. 


REFLECTIONS  UPON  THE  READING  COURSES. 

Two  distinct  ideas  are  represented  in  the  reading  courses  outlined  in 
the  preceding  pages.  The  older  or  Chautauqua-Pennsylvania  idea  is 
that  of  a  definite,  prescribed,  self-limited,  technical  correspondence 
curriculum,  the.  completion  of  which  is  signalized  by  a  certificate  or 
diploma.  The  other,  or  Cornell  idea,  is  that  of  a  flexible,  nonlimited, 
untechnical  reading  course  in  which  there  is  no  system  of  counts,  and 
which  does  not  lead  to  certificatory  honors.  The  former  is  intensive: 
it  is  adapted  to  the  few.  The  latter  is  elementary:  it  is  adapted  to 
the  many.     Each  is  incomplete. 

The  ideal  reading-course  system  is  that  which  joins  the  two  ideas. 
Its  general  work  is  to  touch  and  awaken  every  farmer,  particularly 
every  poor  farmer;  it  searches  out  the  man  who  has  small  opportuni- 
ties. 'Its  special  work  is  to  aid  the  few  who  are  already  successful;  it 
accepts  the  man  of  fair  or  large  opportunities.  If  the  primary  object 
of  a  reading  course  is  a  mission,  the  Cornell  system  would  seem  to  be 
the  better;  if  the  object  is  technical  education,  the  Pennsylvania  or 
curriculum  system  is  the  better.  But  since  the  complete  reading 
course  is  both  a  missionary  and  a  schoolmaster,  it  is  evident  that  the 
two  systems  should  be  conjoined. 


22 

A  giveo  amount  of  money  will  reach  more  persons  in  the  elementary 
or  Cornell  system.  If  hinds  are  not  at  hand  for  the  publication  of 
Lessons,  existing  bulletins  may  be  utilized,  or  the  reader  may  be  asked 

to  luiy  the  Lesson,  and  the  expense  of  it  would  be  Less  than  the  buying 
of  books.     The  Lessons  or  the  bulletins  have  more  local  and  personal 

application  than  books  do.  There  i-.  or  should  he.  Less. of  detail  in 
them.  But  every  effort  should  be  made  to  lead  the  reader  into  the 
Larger  horizon  of  book  reading.  As  fast  a-  persons  arc  ready  for 
books,  supply  the  lists  and  suggest  graded  courses.  For  those  who 
go  far  enough  in  the  reading  and  study  of  books  a  certificate  or 
diploma  may  be  provided:  but  this  diploma  should  never  carry  with 
it  an  academic  decree. 

Organization  of  the  readers  is  a  prime  requisite.  This  is  the  expe- 
rience of  every  reading-course  movement.  The  flame  of  interest  is 
kept  burning  if  there  is  more  than  one  person  to  tend  the  tire.  Small 
circles  or  clubs  are  relatively  more  effective  than  large  one-.  Twenty 
person-  ;-  perhaps  an  outside  number  for  greatest  efficiency.  If  a 
grange  or  other  society  takes  the  reading  course,  and  its  members  are 
many,  it  is  well  to  consider  the  dividing  of  the  membership  into  two 
or  more  clubs  or  subcircles.  Several  small  clubs  in  a  community 
engender  emulation.  In  a  small  circle  every  member  takes  a  part  in 
the  discussions. 

The  literature  must  be  distributed  promptly  at  the  appointed  time. 
This  is  particularly  important  if  independent  lessons  are  used,  for  the 
circle  depends  upon  a  lesson  for  new  subject  matter  at  the  session. 
The  reading  matter  should  be  promised  for  a  definite  time,  and  with- 
held until  that  time.  The  circle  may  devote  as  many  sessions  as  it 
desires  to  each  lesson. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  these  reading  courses  avoid  the 
discussion  of  question-  of  mere  practice.  They  should  teach  the  rea- 
sons why — the  general  or  underlying  truths.  The  superintendent  of  a 
reading  course  cannot  know  the  local  and  personal  conditions  which 
underlie  methods  of  practice,  and  the  greater  part  of  his  energies 
would  be  dissipated  if  he  attempted  to  discuss  them.  But  the  members 
of  the  circle-  or  club-  should  be  encouraged  to  make  applications  for 
themselves  of  the  principles  under  discussion.  It  is  far  better  to  eluci- 
date a  very  few  underlying  principles  and  to  encourage  the  application 
and  illustration  of  them  on  each  farm  than  to  cram  the  mind  with  any 
amount  of  mere  information  and  advice.  We  often  attempt  to  teach 
too  much. 

A  promise  of  a  visit  from  some  person  officially  connected  with  the 
reading  course  act-  a-  a  powerful  stimulus.  Such  visit  should  be 
regarded  a-  a  premium  on  efficient  work,  not  a-  a  matter  of  course. 
One  visit  each  winter  will  be  sufficient  to  keep  up  the  interest,  particu- 
larly if  it  is  made  rather  late  in  the  winter,  when  enthusiasm  usually 


23 

begins  to  lag.  The  reading  course  La  an  excellenj  supplement  to  the 
farmers'  institute.  The  ideal  Legacy  of  an  institute  is  a  reading  course. 
( me  or  two  of  the  speakers  might  be  delegated  to  organize  Buch  courses, 

and  also  to  visit  and  inspect  clubs  or  circles  in  the  neighborhood.  The 
questions  which  are  Left  over  from  the  institute4  may  form  the  basis  of 
discussions  at  the  clubs,  and  the  clubs  may  keep  the  spark  of  interest 
and  inquiry  alive  until  the  next  institute. 

Finally,  it  should  be  said  again  that  the  reading  course  must  be  pushed. 
It  will  not  run  itself,  unless  it  runs  into  the  ground.  It  is  not  enough 
to  offer  the  people  the  privilege.  The  movement  must  be  kept  alive. 
It  must  be  made  attractive  and  useful.  In  justice,  every  farmers'  read- 
ing course  should  be  run  by  a  person  whose  head  and  heart  and  hands 
are  not  full  of  college  or  experiment-station  work;  but  in  every  case 
so  far  the  fact  has  been  just  the  reverse,  and  it  will  be  some  years  yet, 
no  doubt,  before  the  movement  reaches  that  influence  and  standing 
which  call  for  specially  trained  men.  The  men  who  have  labored  with 
the  reading-course  movement  are  all  doing  full  work  without  it.  The}' 
take  it  up  gladly  and  hopefully,  without  remuneration.  This  spirit  is 
one  of  the  distinguishing  marks  of  the  agricultural  colleges  and  experi- 
ment stations,  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  hopeful  things  in  our  agri- 
cultural status. 


APPENDIX 


In  order  to  still  further  exhibit  the  work  and  methods  of  the  reading 
courses,  representative  documents  used  in  various  States  have  been 
selected  and  are  presented  herewith. 

Exhibit  A. 

THE  PENNSYLVANIA  STATE  COLLEGE. 

Correspondence  Courses  in  Agriculture. 

Chamberlain'1 s  "  Tile  Drainage"  Lesson  No.  1. 

tiie  theory. 

The  practice  of  removing  surplus  water  from  the  land  was  practiced  at  a  very  early 
time,  but  not  until  comparatively  recent  times  do  we  have  records  of  anything  like 
systematic  drainage.  The  early  drainage  was  undoubtedly  for  the  improvement  of 
sanitary  conditions  and  for  the  removal  of  surface  water. 

About  one  hundred  years  ago  systematic  drainage  was  attempted  in  England  for 
the  removal  of  both  surface  water  and  stagnant  water  within  the  soil.  This  met  with 
success  and  general  favor,  and  may  be  said  to  mark  the  beginning  of  modern  drainage. 

While  many  good  effects  of  drainage  have  been  known  for  a  long  time,  yet  many 
important  results  were  wholly  overlooked  by  those  who  may  well  be  called  pioneers 
in  modern  drainage.  That  surplus  water  should  be  removed  to  make  the  soil  mel- 
low, to  make  the  soil  warm,  to  make  the  soil  fertile,  to  lengthen  the  season  of  culti- 
vation, to  enable  plants  to  better  withstand  drought,  are  some  of  the  phases  of  drain- 
age that  have  been  studied  most  in  recent  times. 

A  superabundance  of  water  in  the  soil  is  detrimental  to  plant  growth  for  the  follow- 
ing reasons: 

(1)  It  excludes  air. 

(2)  It  absorbs  heat. 

(3)  It  prevents  chemical  action  from  making  the  plant  food  available. 

(4)  It  delays  cultivation. 

(5)  It  causes  winterkilling  or  heaving  of  crops. 

(6)  It  increases  the  ill  effects  of  drought. 

(1)  A  certain  amount  of  water  is  necessary  for  the  germination  of  seeds.  Seeds  in 
germination  use  or  absorb  oxygen  and  generate  considerable  heat.  Soil  from  which 
the  air  is  excluded  can  not  furnish  the  necessary  oxygen  for  germination.  (See  Plant 
Life  on  the  Farm,  p.  77.)     Roots  of  plants  need  air.      (See  Tile  Drainage,  pp.  9, 10.) 

(2)  A  wet  soil  is  a  cold  soil.  The  only  means  of  warming  a  wet  soil  is  by  applying 
heat  at  the  surface.  This  heat  applied  at  the  surface  will  evaporate  water,  which,  in 
turn,  is  a  cooling  process.  To  remove  surplus  water  by  evaporation  is  not  only  a  slow 
process,  but  uses  up  a  vast  amount  of  heat  that  should  be  utilized  by  growing  crops. 
(See  Tile  Drainage,  pp.  17, 18.) 

25 


26 

(:->)  In  nearly  all  arable  soils  there  is  a  large  amount  of  plant  Eood  that  can  be  made 
available  by  cultivation  and  the  admission  of  heat  and  air.  Through  the  agency  of 
chemical  action  a  considerable  portion  of  tins  plant  food  may  be  made  available  that 

otherwise  would  lie  inert. 

(4)  A  superabundance  of  water  necessarily  shortens  the  period  of  cultivation. 
Soils  can  not  be  cultivated  profitably  while  they  are  wet.  The  period  of  cultivation, 
then,  can  not  extend  through  the  season  of  drying.  This  frequently  seriously  inter- 
feres with  the  period  of  growth  of  ordinary  crops. 

(5)  Each  year  much  damage  is  done  throughout  the  country  by  winterkilling,  or 
"  heaving  out,"  of  wheat,  clover,  grass,  etc.  This  can  only  take  place  when  the  soil 
contains  a  considerable  amount  of  moisture.  Dry  soils  do  not  heave.  (See  Tile 
Drainage,  p.  22.) 

(6)  Land  that  suffers  from  excessive  moisture  during  a  portion  of  the  year  usually 
suffers  most  through  drought.  Drainage  not  only  prevents  the  ill  effects  of  excessive 
moisture,  but  also  modifies  the  ill  effects  of  drought.      (See  Tile  Drainage,  p.  25.) 

In  studying  drainage,  water  may  be  studied  under  four  heads: 

(1)  Water  flowing  over  the  surface. 

(2)  Hydrostatic  water. 

(3)  Water  held  by  capillarity. 

(4)  Hygroscopic  water. 

(1)  Flowing  water,  if  in  small  quantity,  should  be  removed  by  drainage  after  pass- 
ing slowly  through  the  soil.  Streams  of  water  should  not  be  allowed  to  How  con- 
tinually over  the  soil,  except  in  permanent  water  courses. 

(2)  Hydrostatic  water,  or  stagnant  water,  is  that  which  is  held  in  the  soil  by 
impervious  subsoil,  and  naturally  escapes  by  evaporation.  This  may  be  removed  by 
drainage*  if  a  proper  outlet  be  provided.  The  surface  of  the  stagnant  water  is  spoken 
of  as  the  wTater  table.  When  the  soil  has  an  impervious  subsoil  without  artificial 
drainage  the  water  table  may  be  at  or  even  above  the  surface  of  the  soil,  if  the 
precipitation  is  greater  than  the  evaporation.  In  time  of  drought  the  water  table  is 
lowered,  but  that  does  not  fit  the  land  for  the  growth  of  crops.  Loam  or  clay  soils, 
under  these  conditions,  become  too  compact  for  plant  growth.  (See  Tile  Drainage, 
pp.  10,  11.) 

(3)  Water  held  by  capillarity  is  that  held  in  a  porous  soil  by  virtue  of  the  power 
of  water  to  raise  itself  in  small  tubes.  This  action  is  very  similar  to  the  rise  of  water 
in  a  sponge,  blotting  paper,  or  oil  in  a  lampwick.  The  amount  of  water  held  in  this 
manner  is  not  detrimental  to  plant  growth,  and  would  not  be  removed  by  drainage. 
(See  Tile  Drainage,  pp.  9,  10.) 

It  has  been  found  by  actual  trial  that  ordinary  arable  soils  have  the  power  of 
absorbing  by  capillarity  from  35  to  70  per  cent  of  their  weight  of  water.  It  is  also 
well  known  that  thoroughly  drained  soils  have  much  greater  capacity  for  holding 
capillary  water  than  those  that  are  undrained.      (See  Tile  Drainage,  p.  25.) 

The  average  of  a  large  number  of  tests  of  drained  and  undrained  soils  shows  that 
drained  soils  will  hold  about  12  per  cent  more  water  by  capillarity.  Ordinary  soils 
weigh  from  3,000,000  to  4,500,000  pounds  per  acre  for  the  first  foot.  Bearing"  in 
mind  that  1  inch  of  rainfall  weighs  about  113  tons  per  acre,  some  idea  of  the  vast 
amount  of  water  stored  in  the  soil  by  capillarity  for  the  use  of  the  plant  may  be 
obtained. 

The  question  of  supplying  water  for  growing  crops  is  each  year  receiving  more 
attention  than  ever  before. 

(4)  Hygroscopic;  water  is  water  absorbed  by  fine,  dry  soil  from  the  atmosphere. 
The  moist  condition  of  the  dust  in  the  road,  or  a  fine,  fallow  field  in  the  morning,  is 
due  to  this  moisture.     Plants  may  use  water  so  absorbed  from  the  atmosphere. 


■21 
THE  PENNSYLVANIA  STATE  C0LLEG1 

CORRESPONDENCE   C0UBSK8    i\    A.GRICULTURE. 

"Tile  Drainage"  Question  Paper  No.  I. 

students  will  discuss  freely  the  following  topics,  nol  confining  themselves  to  the 
lesson,  but  use  information  gained  from  other  sources.     Write  freely  on  the  questions 

as  topics  for  discussion  rather  than  questions  to  be  answered  briefly.     All  answers  \<> 
be  written  without  direct  aid  of  the  hook  or  the  lesson. 

Send  answers  to  the  superintendent  as  soon  as  completed,  when  other  lessons  will 
bo  forwarded.  In  no  case  will  a  succeeding  lesson  be  sent  until  the  questions  of  tl it- 
previous  lesson  are  answered. 

(1)  Discuss  the  history  and  development  of  drainage. 

(2)  Explain  how  the  removal  of  surplus  water  tends  to  make  the  soil  mellow. 

(3)  What  effect  does  the  removal  of  the  water  have  on  the  temperature  of  the  soil  ? 
Discuss  fully. 

(4)  In  what  way  does  the  removal  of  wrater  by  drainage  furnish  growing  crops 
with  water  in  time  of  drought? 

(5)  How  may  drainage  increase  the  fertility  ? 

(6)  In  what  way  is  an  excess  of  moisture  injurious  to  germination  ? 

(7)  Compare  hydrostatic  water  with  that  held  by  capillarity. 

(8)  Of  what  use  is  hygroscopic  water? 

(9)  Of  flowing,  hydrostatic,  hygroscopic  water,  or  water  of  capillarity,  which  is  of 
the  greatest  importance  to  field  crops  ? 

(10)  How  may  drainage  lessen  the  ill  effects  of  winterkilling  of  wheat,  clover, 
grasses,  etc.? 


Exhibit  B. 

THE  PENNSYLVANIA  STATE  COLLEGE. 

The  Chautauqua  Course  op  Home  Study  ix  Agriculture. 

Miles'  "  Stock  Breeding  "  Lesson  No.  2. — Heredity. 

The  ability  of  parents  to  transmit  to  their  offspring  the  characteristics  of  the  parents 
has  for  a  long  time  been  generally  admitted.  Although  there  are  many  exceptions 
to  this  law,  yet  facts  show  that  it  is  not  only  constant  in  its  action  but  extends  to 
every  feature  of  the  organization.  Within  certain  limits  the  progeny  always  resemble 
their  parents.  If  this  were  not  so  there  would  be  no  constancy  of  species,  and  stock 
breeders  would  have  no  assurance  that  the  progeny  would  be  adapted  to  the  same 
uses  as  their  parents.  The  young  of  the  sheep  might  more  nearly  resemble  the  dog 
than  its  parents,  the  pig  resemble  the  lamb,  etc. 

That  the  young  always  resemble  their  parents,  within  certain  limits,  is  evident  to 
everyone,  and  we  need  only  to  recall  familiar  illustrations  to  remind  us  that  in  cer- 
tain classes  or  breeds  the  close  resemblance  of  the  progeny  to  the  parents  is  very 
marked.  Almost  any  species  of  wild  animal  will  nicely  illustrate  this  point.  Their 
characteristics  are  well  fixed  and  change  slowly  with  changed  conditions.  The  dis- 
tinguishing characteristics  are  transmitted  from  parent  to  offspring.  While  the  early 
breeders  used  the  old  adage  "like  produces  like,"  modern  breeders  use  the  word 
heredity  to  mean  essentially  the  same  thing.     (See  Stock  Breeding,  pp.  11,  12.) 

The  law  of  transmission  or  heredity  is  by  far  the  most  important  law  recognized  by 
stock  breeders,  and  its  importance  is  more  likely  to  be  underestimated  than  to  have 


28 

too  greal  importance  placed  upon  it.  Practical  breeders  depend  upon  this  law  more 
than  any  other,  and  probably  more  than  all  others,  for  the  improvement  of  their 
flocks  and  herds.  The  best  animals  of  the  besl  breeds  are  used  for  breeding  purposes, 
however  these  may  have  acquired  their  special  excellence.     (See  Stock  Breeding, 

pp.  1:5-18.) 

Any  character,  whether  good  or  bad,  possessed  by  an  animal,  may  be  transmitted 
to  its  descendants  wholly  or  in  part.  Not  only  may  those  characters  inherited  from 
ancestors  be  transmitted,  but  those  developing  with  the  individual  through  a  change 
oi  food,  climate,  habit,  or  other  causes  may  influence  the  progeny.  (See  Stock  Breed- 
ing, pp.  11.  22,  23.) 

Ancestral  characters  are  more  likely  to  be  transmitted  than  those  acquired  by 
the  animal  due  to  laws  of  variation  or  unusual  conditions.  (See  Stock  Breeding, 
Chap.  II.)  Traits  and  acquired  characters  may  be  transmitted  with  a  fair  degree  of 
certainty.  Illustrations  of  this  kind  are  familiar  to  nearly  everyone.  The  training 
horses  to  trot,  dogs  trained  to  hunt  a  particular  kind  of  game,  the  increased  disposi- 
tion of  cocks  to  fight  are  illustrations  of  this  kind.     (See  Stock  Breeding,  pp.  14, 15,  59.) 

Mutilations  are  rarely  transmitted,  but  with  more  frequency  when  the  mutilated 
part  becomes  diseased.  Docking  lambs  and  cutting  off  the  tails  of  pigs  for  many 
generations  has  not  produced  tailless  or  short-tailed  breeds.  However,  many  authen- 
tic cases  are  on  record  where  blemishes  or  defects  caused  by  mutilation  have  been 
transmitted.     (See  Stock  Breeding,  pp.  58,  60,  61.) 

Certain  diseases  become  hereditary  and  present  characteristics  that  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows: 

(1)  They  are  transmitted  by  the  male  as  well  as  the  female  parent,  and  are  doubly 
severe  in  the  offspring  if  both  parents  are  affected  by  the  same  disease. 

(2)  They  may  be  developed  in  immediate  progeny  and  in  subsequent  generations 
as  well.     (See  Stock  Breeding,  pp.  32,  71.) 

(3)  They  may  not  appear  in  the  same  form  in  each  generation,  but  in  analogous 
diseases.     (See  Stock  Breeding,  pp.  25,  26.) 

(4)  Hereditary  diseases  appear  to  a  certain  extent  to  be  independent  of  external 
conditions  and  the  causes  that  tend  to  produce  nonhereditary  diseases.  (See  Stock 
Breeding,  pp.  26,  27.) 

(5)  They  develop  most  readily  at  critical  periods  of  life  and  under  circumstances 
conducive  to  impaired  health  or  when  the  vital  powers  are  unusually  low.  (See 
Stock  Breeding,  pp.  23,  26.) 

(6)  As  a  rule  they  are  less  effectually  treated  by  ordinary  remedies  than  other 
diseases. 


THE  PENNSYLVANIA  STATE  COLLEGE. 
Chautauqua  Course  of  Home  Study  in  Agriculture. 
" Stock  Breeding,"  Question  Paper  No. 

Students  will  discuss  freely  the  following  topics,  not  confining  themselves  to  the 
lesson  sheet,  but  use  information  gained  from  other  sources.  Write  freely  on  the  ques- 
tions as  topics  for  discussion  rather  than  questions  to  be  answered  briefly. 

Send  answers  to  the  superintendent  as  soon  as  completed,  when  other  lesson  sheets 
will  be  forwarded.  In  no  case  will  a  succeeding  lesson  sheet  be  sent  until  the  ques- 
tions of  the  previous  lesson  are  answered. 

(1)   Explain  how  constancy  of  species  depends  on  heredity. 

2     Why  is  the  law  of  heredity  of  more  importance  to  the  stock  breeder  than 
other  laws? 


29 

(3)  (Jive  illustrations  of  acquired  characters  that  have  Keen  transmitted,  and  dis- 
cuss the  way  in  which  this  change  has  been  brought  about. 

(4)  Discuss  fully   the  law  governing    the    transmission   of    mutilations.      Give 
illustrations. 

Why  do  certain  diseases  tend  to  become  hereditary  more  than  others? 
(6)   Explain  why  hereditary  diseases  develop  most  readily  at  critical  periods  of  life. 
7      How   may  characters  produced  l.y  food  he  transmitted  ?     Give  illustrations. 
(8)  Give  illustrations  of  heredity  appearing  In  succeeding  generations  in  analo- 
gous diseases. 

Explain  why  ancestral   characters  are  more  likely  to   be   transmitted    than 
acquired  characters. 


Exhibit  C. 

THE  PENNSYLVANIA  STATE  COLLEGE. 

Correspondence  Courses  in  Agriculture. 

Ormsbee's  "  The  House  Comfortable"  Question  Paper  No.  3. 

Students  will  discuss  freely  the  following  topics,  not  confining  themselves  to  the 
lessons,  but  use  information  gained  from  other  sources.  Write  freely  on  the  questions 
as  topics  for  discussion  rather  than  questions  to  be  answered  briefly.  All  answers  to 
be  written  without  direct  aid  of  the  book  or  the  lesson. 

Send  answers  to  the  superintendent  as  soon  as  completed,  when  other  lessons  will 
be  forwarded.  In  no  case  wdll  a  succeeding  lesson  be  sent  until  the  questions  of  the 
previous  lessons  are  answered. 

(1)  Give  size  of  convenient  kitchen  for  farmhouse.  Discuss  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages. 

(2)  If  the  floor  is  painted,  give  a  good  preparation  to  use,  and  describe  method  of 
applying. 

(3)  How  can  dishwashing  be  made  easiest  ?  If  the  dishes  are  drained  by  any  device 
for  the  purpose,  give  a  plan  of  the  drainer  and  describe  subsequent  treatment. 

(4)  Give  the  best  method  of  keeping  the  kitchen  range  black  and  clean. 

(5)  How  would  you  have  the  walls  and  ceiling  of  your  kitchen  finished,  if  you 
could  choose  ?     Give  reasons. 

(6)  What  schemes  have  you  for  making  the  work  of  your  kitchen  easier? 

(7)  How  do  you  keep  your  kitchen  free  from  flies  in  summer? 

(8)  Discuss  means  for  removing  the  odor  from  cooking  from  the  kitchen. 


Exhibit  D. 

CORNELL  READING  COURSE  FOR  FARMERS. 

Reading  Lesson  No.  1,  November,  1898,  bv  L.  H.  Bailey. 

The  Soil:   What  it  is. 

1.  The  basis  of  soil  is  fragments  of  rock. — As  the  earth  cooled,  the  surface  solidified 
into  rock.  The  processes  of  nature  have  been  constantly  at  work  in  breaking  up  this 
rock  and  making  it  into  soil. 

2.  Weathering  is  the  great  agency  in  making  rocks  into  soil. — Rain,  snow,  ice,  frost  have 
worn  away  the  mountains  and  deposited  the  fragments  as  soil.     Probably  as  much 


30 

material  has  been  worn  away  from  the  Alps  as  still  remains,  and  this  material  now 
forms  much  of  the  soil  of  Italy,  <  rermany,  Prance,  and  Holland.  Ourown  mountains 
and  hills  have  worn  away  in  like  manner. 

:;.  Weathering  is  stUl  active. — All  exposed  rocks  are  wearing  away.  Stones  are  grow- 
ing smaller.    The  soil  is  pulverized  by  fall  plowing. 

4.  The  particles  of  soil  "/•<  worn  <m<l  transported  by  waJU  r. — Every  stream  carries  away 
great  quantities-of  soil  and  deposits  it  in  the  shallows  and  the  hays.  Alter  every 
rain  tin'  streams  and  ponds  are  muddy  or  roily.  Observe  the  sediment  or  fine 
mud  which  remains  when  a  "  mud  puddle"  dries  up.  The  rivulet  may  carry  away 
tons  of  earth  every  year  and  this  is  deposited  BOmewhere,  and  some  time  it  may, 

perhaps,  come  into  use  again  for  the  growing  of  plants.  Many  of  our  best  and 
richest  farm  lands  are  the  deposits  of  former  streams  and  lakes.  Such  lands  are  fine 
and  siltlike.  Most  lowlands  belong  to  this  category,  and  even  some  of  our  higher 
lands  are  formed  from  deposits  from  water.  The  mixed  and  varied  character  of  soils 
is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are  the  results  of  transportation  from  different 
places. 

Observe  the  flat  lands  about  lakes.  These  flats  are  formed  by  the  deposition  of 
material  from  the  surrounding  highlands;  but  they  are  often  exposed  before  their 
natural  time  by  the  lowering  of  the  water  level  in  the  lake.  All  lakes  and  ponds 
are  filling  up.  Nearly  every  stream  makes  a  delta  at  its  mouth;  but  if  the  stream 
into  which  it  empties  is  swift,  the  delta  may  be  carried  away. 

Observe,  also,  the  broad,  rounded  hillocks  and  knolls  in  valleys  and  ravines.  Many 
of  them  have  attained  their  present  form  from  the  action  of  moving  water. 

Every  farmer  knows  that  overflowed  lands  are  rich.  He  has  heard  of  the  won- 
derful fertility  of  the  Nile.     He  should  explain  these  facts. 

5.  All  productive  soils  also  contain  organic  matter. — Organic  matter  is  the  remains  of 
plants  and  animals.  As  found  in  soils  in  a  decaying  condition,  it  is  called  humus. 
It  is  the  humus  which  gives  the  soil  its  dark  or  "  rich  "  look.  It  also  tends  to  make 
soils  loose,  warm,  and  mellow.  It  holds  moisture.  The  addition  of  humus  makes 
soils  loamy.  A  sandy  loam  may  be  defined  as  a  soil  of  which  the  original  mineral 
matter  is  sand,  and  a  clayey  loam  is  one  of  which  the  basis  is  clay.  Soils  which 
have  no  humus  are  hard,  ''dead  "  and  unproductive. 

6.  Humus  is  supplied  by  mearn  of  roots  and  stubble,  green  crops,  and  barn  manures. — If 
the  farmer  practices  a  rotation  of  which  meadow  and  pasture  are  a  part,  the  supply 
of  humus  will  be  maintained.  In  such  cases,  green  manuring  is  unnecessary  except 
now  and  then  upon  lands  which  are  very  hard  or  poor.  The  roots  and  the  stubble, 
with  the  droppings  of  the  animals  on  the  pasture,  and  manure  applied  with  one  of 
the  crops  in  the  rotation,  keep  the  land  well  supplied  with  vegetable  matter.  When- 
ever possible,  it  is  better  to  feed  the  crop  to  stock  and  return  the  manure  to  the  land 
than  to  plow  the  crop  under,  for  one  will  get  back  the  greater  part  of  the  fertilizing 
value  of  the  crops  and  maintain  the  animal  at  the  same  time.  In  western  New  York, 
there  are  hundreds  o£  acres  of  refuse  cabbage  lands,  and  at  this  day  there  are  thou- 
sands of  tons  of  herbage  on  the  ground  and  no  stock  to  eat  it.     It  is  wasteful. 

Many  soils  which  are  said  to  be  worn  out  are  robbed  of  their  humus  rather  than 
of  their  plant  food;  others  have  been  injured  in  their  texture  by  careless  or  faulty 
management.  In  supplying  humus,  it  is  better  to  add  small  quantities  often.  Lands 
which  are  under  constant  tillage,  in  corn,  wheat,  oats,  potatoes,  may  be  supplied 
with  humus  if  catch  crops  are  sown  with  the  crop,  now  and  then,  late  in  the  season. 
Rye,  Canada  peas,  crimson  clover,  and  the  like  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  Plow 
them  under  as  soon  as  the  land  is  ready  in  the  spring,  even  if  the  plants  are  not 
large. 

I  Ibserve  how  the  forest  supplies  its  humus.  Year  by  year  the  leaves  add  to  the  soil 
cover,  which  slowly  passes  into  vegetable  mold  or  humus.  The  trunks  finally  decay 
and  pass  into  the  soil.     The  work  is  effectively  done,  hut  it  consumes  time,  and  man 


31 

is  in  a  hurry.  When  the  forest  is  removed  the  land  is  very  productive.  It  is  called 
••  virgin  soil."  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  an  enormous  crop  of  trees  has  just  been 
taken  from  it.  and  that  it  may  have  grown  hundreds  of  such  crops.  The  real  virgin 
soil  is  the  barren  soil.  But  however  rich  this  Eoresl  soil  may  he  when  the  timber  is 
first  removed,  it  generally  soon  loses  its  exuberant  fertility.  The  pigmy  crops  of  tin- 
farmer  seem  to  he  harder  on  the  soil  than  the  gigantic  crops  of  nature.  Some  of  this; 
loss  of  productivity  is  due  to  the  loss  of  humus. 

A  rotation  prevents  the  exhaustion  of  plant-food,  supplies  nitrogen  in  leguminous 
crops,  one  crop  leaves  the  land  in  better  condition  for  another,  the  roots  and  stubble 
improve  the  texture  of  the  soil,  it  keeps  weeds  in  check,  provides  for  continuous 
labor  because  stock  is  kept. 

The  rotation  should  differ  with  the  kind  of  soil  and  general  style  of  farming.  The 
Cornell  rotation  is: 

Wheat. 

Clover  and  timothy,  one  year. 

Maize  (corn) . 

Oats. 
A  good  rotation  for  weed-infested  land  is: 

Sod,  one  year. 

Maize. 

Potatoes,  or  some  other  tilled  crop. 

Oats  or  barley. 
On  fruit  farms  rotations  are  not  so  practicable  as  on  grain  farms,  but  the  fields 
which  are  not  in  fruit  can  often  be  worked  in  rotation  to  great  advantage.     The  gen- 
eral tendency  of  fruit  farmers  is  to  keep  too  little  stock.     If  stock  can  not  be  kept,  the 
humus  can  be  maintained  by  catch  crops  and  cover  crops. 

7.  The  fertility  of  the  land  is  Us  power  to  produce  crops.  It  is  determined  by  three  things — 
the  texture  of  the  soil,  its  richness  in  plant  food,  and  its  (tradable  moisture. — The  texture  of 
the  soil  is  its  physical  condition,  as  to  whether  it  is  mellow,  loose,  leachy,  cloddy, 
hard,  and  the  like.  A  rock  or  a  board  will  not  raise  corn,  and  yet  it  may  contain  an 
abundance  of  plant  food.  The  plant  can  not  get  a  foothold,  and  it  would  do  no  good 
to  apply  fertilizers.  Spreading  potash  on  a  lump  of  clay  is  not  farming;  it  is  the 
wasting  of  potash.  A  cow  will  not  appreciate  the  fanciest  ration  if  she  is  uncomfor- 
table; neither  will  a  plant.  It  is  only  on  land  which  is  in  good  tilth  that  fertilizers 
pay.  The  better  the  farming  the  more  it  will  pay,  as  a  rule,  to  buy  plant  food,  but 
poor  farming  can  not  make  it  pay. 

8.  Nature  secures  good  texture  in  soil  by  growing  plants  in  it. — Roots  make  the  soil 
finer,  and  plants  supply  it  with  humus.  Plants  break  down  the  soil  by  sending  their 
roots  into  the  crevices  of  the  particles,  and  the  root  acids  dissolve  some  of  it.  Observe 
nature  working  at  this  problem.  First  the  "moss"  or  lichen  attacks  the  rock,  the 
weather  cracks  it  and  wears  it  away,  a  little  soil  is  gathered  here  and  there  in  the 
hollows,  a  fern  or  some  other  lowly  plant  gains  a  foothold,  year  by  year  and  century 
by  century  the  pocket  of  soil  grows  deeper  and  larger,  and  finally  the  rock  is  worn 
away  and  crumbled  and  is  ready  to  support  potatoes  and  smart  weed.  Or  the  rock 
may  be  hard  and  bare  and  you  can  not  see  any  such  process  going  on;  yet,  even 
then,  every  rain  washes  something  away  from  it,  and  the  soil  beneath  it  is  constantly 
receiving  additions.  Some  soils  may  be  said  to  be  completed;  the  rock  is  all  broken 
down  and  fined.  Other  soils  are  still  in  process  of  manufacture;  they  are  full  of 
stones  and  pebbles  which  are  slowly  disintegrating  and  adding  their  substance  to  the 
soil.     Did  you  ever  see  a  "  rotten  stone? ' ' 

The  longer  plants  are  grown  on  any  soil  and  returned  to  it  the  richer  the  soil 
becomes.  But  nature  has  centuries  at  her  disposal;  man' has  but  a  few  short  years 
and  must  work  rapidly,  and  he  can  not  afford  to  make  mistakes. 

9.  The  texture  of  tin  soil  may  h,  improved  (1)  by  underdrawing,  (2)   by  tilling,  (3)   by 


32 

\  (4)  by  adding  ceri  >J(angethe 

b. — The  reader  will  say  that  nature  does  not  practice  tile-drain- 

Perhapsnot;  but  thenahe  has  more  kinds  of  crops  to  grow  than  the  farmer  has, 

and  if  she  can  not  raise  oaks  on  a  certain  piece  of  land  she  can  put  in  water  lilies. 

We  shall  have  an  entire  less.  >n  dev<  >ted  to  drainage  and  tillage,  and  also  one  to  manures 

and  fertilizers.     It  is  for  the  present  to  say  that  the  roots  which  are  left  in 

and  after  the  crop  is  harvested  are  very  valuable  in  improving  the  soil.     This 

icularly  true  if  they  are  tap  roots — if  they  run  deep  into  the  soil.     Clover 

-  holes  into  the  soil,  letting  in  air.  draining  it.  warming  it.  and  bringing  up  its 
plant  food.  Roberts  reports  v Fertility  of  the  Land.  p.  345  that  a  second  growth  of 
clover,  two  years  fr  -    gave  a  yield  of  air-dried  I  417  ponn 

and  of  air-dried  roots  _  -  pounds  in  the  first  8  inches  of  Boil  Add  to  this 
latter  figure  the  weight  of  roots  below  S  inches  and  the  stubble  and  waste,  and  it  is 
seen  that  the  amount  of  herbage  left  on  the  clover  field  is  not  greatly  less  than  that 
taken  off.  In  this  instance  the  roots  contained  a  greater  percentage  of  nitrogen  and 
phosphoric  acid  than  the  tope,  and  about  the  same  percentage  of  potash. 

Make  an  estimate  of  what  proportion  of  the  plant  growth  you  raise  is  actually 
taken  off  the  field.     Figure  up,  as   accurately  as  you   can.  the  part  left  in 
stubble,  leaves,  and  refuse.     Even  of  maize,  you  do  not  remove  all  from  the  field. 
This  calculation  will  bring  up  the  whole  question  of  the  kind  of  root  system  which 
each  sort  of  plant  has.     Have  you  ever  ma  -     examination  of  the  roots  of 

potatoes,  maize,  wheat,  clover,  cabbages,  buckwheat,  strawberries.  Canada  thistles, 
or  other  crops?     From  what  part  of  the  soil  do  these  plants  secure  their  nourish- 
ment?   What  power  have  they  of  going  deep  for  water?     What  proportion  of  them 
■:?     Because  the  roots  are  hidden,  we  have  neglected  to  examine  them. 

10.  Tht  soil  is  or  available  slowly. — Roberts 
s      mpiled  the  analyses  of  49  representative  s oils  made  by  American  chemists 

the  following  is  the  result:  "The  tables  reveal  the  fact  that  even  the  poorer  soils 
have  an  abundance  of  plant  food  for  several  crops,  while  the  richer  soils  in  tome 

-  -  have  sufficient  for  200  to  300  crops  of  wheat  or  maize.  The  average  of  34 
analyses  gives  to  each  acre  of  land.  S  inches  deep.  3.217  pounds  of  nitrogen.  3.936 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  17.597  pounds  of  potash,  and  this  does  not  include 
that  which  is  contained  in  the  stones,  gravel,  and  sand  of  the  soil  which  will  not 
pass  through  meshes  of  one-fiftieth  of  an  inch,  which,  by  weathering  and  tillage, 
slowly  give  up  their  valuable  constituents."       Roberts,  Fertility  of  the  Land,  p.  16.  | 

Fortunately,  this  great  store  of  plant  food  is  locked  up.  else  it  would  have  leached 

from  the  soil  or  have  been  used  up  long  ago.     By  careful  husbandry  a  little  of  it  is 

made  usable  year  by  year,  and  the  better  the  management  of  the  land  the  more  of  this 

is  available  to  the  plant.     When  the  farmer  has  done  his  best  to  get  out  of  the 

land  all  that  it  will  give  him.  then  he  may  add  fertilizers  for  larger  results. 

Plant  food  is  available  when  it  is  in  such  condition  that  the  plant  can  use  it.  It 
must  be  both  soluble  and  in  such  chemical  form  that  the  plant  likes  it.  Plant  food 
which  is  not  soluble  in  rain  water  may  still  be  soluble  in  soil  water  |  which  contains 

-  Lerived  from  the  humus  > ,  and  the  acid  excretions  from  the  roots  may  render  it 
soluble.  But  solubility  is  not  necessarily  availability,  for,  a-  we  have  said,  the  mate- 
rials must  be  in  such  combination  that  the  plant  will  take  them.  Thus,  nitrate  of 
soda  (NaNQg  is  available  because  it  is  both  soluble  and  in  the  form  in  which  the 
plant  wants  it.  But  nitrite  of  soda  >~a>~0_  is  not  available,  although  it  is  soluble — 
the  plant  does  not  like  nitrites. 

11.  A  •  mat  probably  be  in  (he  form  most 

_   :i  is  abundant.     It  is  approximately  four-fifths  of  the  atmosphere  and 
it  is  an  important  content  of  every  plant  and  animal:  yet.  it  is  the  element  which  is 

lifficult  t<>  secure  and  to  keep  and  the  I      -  -        to  buy.      Thi~    - 

the  greater  part  of  it  is  not  in  a  form  to  be  available  and  because,  when  it  is  available, 


33 

it  tends  t«>  leach  from  the  soil.  It  is  available  when  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  nitrate 
one  pari  of  nitrogen,  three  parts  of  oxygen,  united  with,  one  part  of  some  other  ele- 
ment (NaNOj,  nitrate  of  soda;  KX<>..  nitrate  of  potash  or  saltpeter;  Il\<>.  nitric 
acid,  etc.) .  The  process  <A  changing  nitrogen  into  nitrates  is  called  nitrification.  This 
process  is  the  work  of  germs  or  microbes  in  the  soil,  and  these  germs  work  most  effi- 
ciently when  the  soil  is  not  water-logged  and  when  it  is  well  tilled.  The  farmer 
should  make  his  available  nitrogen  supply  as  he  goes  along;  and  he  makes  it  with 
tile-drains,  plows,  harrows,  and  cultivators. 

But  there  are  some  plants  which  have  the  power  of  using  the  nitrogen  which  is  in 
the  air  in  the  soil.  These  are  Leguminous  plants — clover-.  peaS,  beans,  vetch,  alfalfa. 
If.  therefore,  the  farmer  can  not  secure  sufficient  nitrogen  by  other  means,  he  may 
use  these  plants  as  green  manures.  If  his  system  of  farming  will  not  allow  him  to 
use  these  plants,  or  if  he  does  not  secure  sufficient  nitrogen  when  he  does  use  them, 
then  he  can  go  to  the  warehouse  and  huy  nitrogen. 

12.  The  soil  is  not  a  mere  inert  mass;  it  is  a  scene  of  life  and  activity. — This  is  the  new 
and  true  teaching.  Soil  which  is  wholly  inactive  is  unproductive.  Movements  of 
air  and  water,  actions  of  heat  and  evaporation,  life  rounds  of  countless  microscopic 
organisms,  decay  and  disintegration  of  plants  and  soil  particles — these  are  some  of 
the  activities  of  the  fertile  soil.  If  our  ears  were  delicate  enough  we  could  hear  the 
shuffle  of  the  workers,  the  beating  of  the  hammers,  and  the  roll  of  the  tiny  machin- 
ery. All  things  begin  with  the  soil  and  at  last  all  things  come  back  to  it.  The  soil 
is  the  cemetery  of  all  the  ages  and  the  resurrection  of  all  life.  If  the  soil  is  not  idle, 
neither  should  the  farmer  be. 

Note. — Persons  who  desire  to  pursue  this  subject  further  should  procure  King's 
book  The  Soil,  and  Roberts's  Fertility  of  the  Land. 


Exhibit  E. 

CORNELL  READING  COURSE  FOR  FARMERS. 

Quiz  on  Reading   Lesson  No.   1.   November,  1898,  by  John   W.  Spencer. 

These  questions  constitute  a  supplement  to  peading  lesson  No.  1  (The  soil;  What 
it  is).  Its  purpose  is  to  induce  the  reader  to  think  carefully  about  what  he  reads. 
Answer  the  questions  as  best  you  can  and  return  this  sheet  to  us  (2  cents  postage). 
We  want  these  answers  in  order  that  we  may  know  what  interest  you  are  taking  in 
the  reading  course  and  how  much  good  you  are  getting  from  it;  and  we  want  to  help 
you  when  you  do  not  understand  the  problems  involved.  We  are  after  results,  and 
do  not  care  about  the  handwriting  nor  the  grammar.  These  answers  are  for  our  \  >wn 
examination  and  are  not  to  be  made  public. 

We  should  be  glad  of  any  comments  on  these  lessons. 

It  is  hoped  that  readers  will  form  themselves  into  little  clubs,  to  meet  once  or  twice 
a  month,  to  discuss  the  problems  raised  by  the  lessons. 

Those  who  answer  the  questions  will  receive  future  lessons. 

Have  you  ever  observed  the  influence  of  weather  upon  soft,  slaty  rock  jutting  out 
on  embankments  and  railroad  cuts? 

Have  you  ever  taken  a  glass  of  muddy  water  from  a  flowing  stream  and  allowed  it 
to  stand  until  the  sediment  had  settled?     What  is  this  sediment? 

Imagine  a  branch  of  this  stream  bringing  rotted  slate  rock  and  another  bringing 
fine  sand.  When  mixed  in  the  main  stream  and  deposited  on  some  bar  or  over- 
flowed field,  what  kind  of  soil  would  the  mixture  make? 

What  is  inorganic  matter? 

What  is  organic  matter? 
8087— No.  72 3 


34 

Why  are  soils  from  which  a  thrifty  forest  growth  has  been  removed  capable  at  once 
of  producing  good  farm  crops? 

Have  you  ever  .observed  lichen  (sometimes  called  "moss")  growing  on  bare  rock 
or  on  a  tombstone? 

If  any  great  amount  of  lichen  should  become  mixed  with  the  disintegrated  rock, 
would  it  be  humus  and  form  a  weak  soil  that  might  produce  an  order  of  plants  a  little 
larger  and  stronger  than  lichen  ? 

As  the  higher  order  of  plant-  come  in  and  die  down  and  mix  with  the  soil,  would 
the  process  increase  the  productive  power  of  the  -oil? 

In  instances  in  which  soil  has  been  removed  by  grading,  could  a  new  soil  be  well 
made  by  adding  commercial  fertilizer  alone?  What  would  you  apply  first  to  such 
land'? 

If  humus  in  soil  under  cultivation  is  perishable,  ought  it  not  to  be  the  farmer's 
first  care  to  keep  g 1  the  quantity  first  found  in  the  virgin  soil? 

In  addition  to  the  humus  returned  to  the  soil  in  manure,  from  forage  fed  to  stock. 
and  by  plowing  under  stubble  and  roots,  do  you  think  it  a  good  plan  to  sow  some 
cover  crop  in  corn  rows  at  last  cultivation,  and  on  oat  and  wheat  stubble  as  soon  as 
the  crop  is  off,  for  plowing  under  the  following  spring ? 

What  are  good  crops  for  this  purpose? 

Which  of  these  are  leguminous  plants?  Name  all  the  kinds  of  leguminous  plants 
you  know. 

Why  is  it  advised  to  plow  under  the  green  crops  as  soon  as  the  land  can  be  worked 
in  the  spring? 

Do  you  think  a  rotation  of  crops  helps  the  soil  to  bear  the  strain  of  successive 
cropping?    If  so,  why? 

Are  you  aware  that  plant  food  exists  in  the  soil  in  both  available  and  unavailable 
forms,  and  that  when  plants  have  used  up  most  of  the  available  part  we  call  the 
soil  worn  out  ? 

Is  it  true  that  your  soil  is  capable  of  being  made  an  active  laboratory  in  which 
changes  will  take  place  and  some  of  this  unavailable  plant  food  be  made  usable  ? 

Are  you  aware  that  when  the  texture  of  your  soil  is  poor,  or,  in  other  words,  when 
your  laboratory  is  out  of  order,  the  best  commercial  fertilizers  or  stable  manures  will 
not  give  the  best  results  ? 

Do  you  know  that  heat  and  air  are  important  agencies  in  the  changes  going  on  in 
the  soil,  as  they  also  are  in  the  changes  in  a  barrel  of  cider  or  in  the  yeast  in  a  pan 
of  dough  ? 

Does  standing  water  on  soil  have  a  detrimental  or  beneficial  effect  on  the  heat  and 
air?     Why? 

How  can  you  make  the  soil  laboratory  do  the  best  work? 

Name, ;  post-office, . 


Exhibit  F. 
Application  for  //><  mbersnip  [Michigan) . 


,  189— . 

I   hereby  state  that  my  desire  is  to  be  enrolled  as  a  member  of  the  Farm  Home 
Reading  Circle  of  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College. 
<  Occupation, . 


Age,  ;  sex,  . 

<  ftass  or  classes  selected. . 

Remarks, . 

Name  in  full. :  post-office, :  county. ;  State. 


35 

No  membership  fee  to  residents  of  Michigan.     Nonresident  fee,  $1. 
If  you  do  not  already  receive  the  bulletins  issued  by  the  Michigan  Experimenl 
station,  and  desire  to  receive  them,  please  till  oul  the  blank  below. 

Please  place  my  nafne  <>u  the  bulletin  mailing  list. 
Name  in  full, ;  post-office,  ;  county,  ;  State,  . 

[Si/e  of  slip,  (5  by  41,  inches.      Janes  on  the  back  for  filing  entries.] 


Exhibit  G. 

Postal-curd  acknoioledgment. 

Agricultural  College,  Mich., ,  189- 


M- 


Your  application  for  membership  in  the  Farm  Home  Reading  Circle  has  been 
received  and  accepted.  You  are  hereby  notified  that  you  have  been  enrolled  as  a 
member,  and  we  shall  endeavor  to  make  our  future  relationship  mutually  pleasant 
and  profitable. 


Yery  respectfully. 


Secretary  of  the  Farm  Home  Heading  Circle. 


Exhibit  H. 
Membership  card. 


189—. 


This  is  to  certify  that  is  a  member  of  the  Farm  Home  Reading 

Circle,  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  and  has  completed . 

Signed : 


President  of  the  College. 


Secretary  F.  H  R.  < '. 


[Size,  5|  by  3 h  inches.  ] 


Exhibit  I. 

Order  for  books  (Michigan) 


189- 


To  the  Secretary  of  the  Farm  Home  Reading  Circle,  Agricultural  College,  MicJdgan: 
Inclosed  please  find for  the  following  books: 


Name  in  full, ;  post-office,  ;  county, ;  State, 

Extra  blanks  furnished  upon  application  to  the  secretary. 

Cash  must  accompany  order. 

[Size,  6  by  4^  inches.     Space  on  the  back  for  filing  entries.] 


M. 


36 

Exhibit  J. 

Portal-card  acknowledgment  of  book  order. 

Agricultural  College,  Mich., ,  f#y — . 


Yniii'  favor  inclosing for   books  is  at   hand  and  will   receive  our  prompt 

attention. 

h  sometimes  happens  that  we  are  out  of  the  books.ordered  by  members  of  the  Farm 
II  <.ni«'  Reading  Circle.     In  such  cases  we  order  direct  from  the  publishers,  and  mem- 
bers do  not  receive  their  hooks  as  quickly  as  they  otherwise  would. 
Very  respectfully, 


Secretary  Farm  Home  Reading  Circle,  Agricultural  College,  Mich. 


Exhibit  K. 
Michigan  diploma. 

STATE   OP    MICHIGAN,    FARM    HOME    READING    CIRCLE    DIPLOMA. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents: 

That is  a  member  of  the  Farm  Home  Reading  Circle  of  the  Michigan 

Agricultural  College  and  that  he  is  entitled  to  this  diploma,  having  completed  a 
c<  >iu 'se  of  reading  prescribed  by  the  secretary  of  the  Farm  Home  Reading  Circle  under 
the  direction  of  the  State  board  of  agriculture,  and  satisfactorily  sustained  the 
examinations. 


President  Michigan  Agricultural  Collegi 


Secretary  Farm  Home  Reading  Circle. 
Agricultural  College, ,  189 — . 

[Size,  8  by  10  inches,  with  ample  margin.     It  has  an  underprint,  in  green  scroll, 
"  .Michigan  Agricultural  College."] 


UNIV 


ERSITY  OF  FLORIDA 


3  1262  08927  7726 


II 


